Signs & Symbols: An Illustrated Guide to Their Origins and Meanings

1

The Feminism Book DK Publishing DK Year: 2019 Language: english File: EPUB, 213.13 MB

2

Fogo e fúria Objetiva Michael Wolff Year: 2018 Language: portuguese File: EPUB, 1.21 MB

AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO THEIR ORIGINS AND MEANINGS











CONTENTS

1–11    Prelims

12–13   THE COSMOS
14–15    Introduction
16–17   The Sun
18–19   The Moon
20–23   The night sky
24–27   The Earth
28–29    Mountains
30–31    Fire
32–33    Water
34–35   The weather
36–37    Rain & snow
38–39    Floods
40–41   The seasons
42–43    Precious stones
44–45    Gold
46–47    Precious matter

48–49   NATAA URAL WORLD
50–51    Introduction
52–55    Mammals
56–57    Cats
58–61    Birds  
62–63   Eagles
64–65    Reptiles & amphibians
66–67   Snakes
68–71    Aquatic creatures
72–73    Creepy crawlies
74–77    Fabulous beasts 
78–79    Dragons
80–81    Plants
82–85    Flowers
86–87   The lotus

LONDON, NEW YORK,
MUNICH, MELBOURNE, DELHI

Project Editor  Kathryn Wilkinson
Senior Art Editor  Vicky Short

Editors  Kim Dennis-Bryan,
Nicola Hodgson, Neil Lockley

Designer Tim Lane
Jacket Designer Silke Spingies

Editoral Consultant  Miranda Bruce-Mitford
Consultant  Philip Wilkinson

Contributors  Ian Harrison, James Harrison,
Sally Regan, Anna Southgate, Amber TokeleyTT

Illustrator  Debajyoti Dutta

Picture Researchers  Megan Jones, 
Roland Smithies, Sarah Smithies
Production Editors  Maria Elia,

Sharon McGoldrick
Production Controller  Louise Minihane

Managing Editor  Julie Oughton
Managing Art Editor  Christine Keilty

Art Director  Bryn Walls
Publisher  Jonathan Metcalf

First published in Great Britain in 2008 by
Dorling Kindersley Limited

80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL
A Penguin Company

2  4  6  8  10  9  7  5  3  1

Copyright © Dorling Kindersley Limited 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted 
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the

prior written permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book 
is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978 1 4053 2539 4

Colour reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore
Printed and bound in China by

Sheck Wah Tong Printing Press Ltd.TT

Discover more at

www.dk.com



88–89        Herbs & spices
90–93        The forest  
94–95        Trees 
96–97        Sacred trees
98–99        Fruits of the earth
100–101    Foods of the earth

102–103    HUMAN LIFE
104–105    Introduction
106–109    The head
110–111    Head trophies
112–115    Human body
116–119    Hands & feet
120–123    Fertility & childbirth
124–125    Initiation rites
126–127    Love & marriage
128–131    Death & mourning
132–133    Vanitas

134–135   MYTHS &
RELIGIONS

136–137    Introduction
138–139    Egyptian deities
140–141    Greek & Roman deities
142–143    Celtic & Nordic deities
144–145    Meso- & South 
                  American deities
146–147    Ancestors
148–149    Nature spirits
150–151    Tribal totems, 
                 heroes & tricksters

152–153    The Dreaming
154–155    Shamanism
156–157    Creation stories

158–163    Hinduism
164–169    Buddhism  
170–171    Taoism & Shinto 
172–173    Judaism
174–175    Kabbalah
176–179    Christianity
180–183    Islam 
184–185    Sikhism
186–187    Voodoo
188–189    Angels
190–191    Satan & demons
192–193    Witches & wicca
194–195    Amulets
196–199    Divination 
200– 203   Western astrology
204–205    Chinese horoscope
206–207    Numerology
208–209    The Holy Grail
210–211    Alchemy

212–213    SOCIETY & CULTULL RE
214–215    Introduction
216–217    Royalty
218–219    Trappings of royalty 
220–221    Coronations
222–223    Nationality
224–225    Tools & weapons
226–227    Architecture
228–231    Religious architecture
232–233    Sacred places
234–235    Buildings
236–237    Steps to Heaven
238–241    The home
242–243    Ships & boats

244–247    Gardens
248–249    Clothing & costume
250–251    Headwear
252–253    Uniforms
254–255    Jewellery
256–257    Body adornment
258–259    Group affiliation
260–261    Freemasonry
262–267    Art
268–269    Dance & theatre
270–271    Masks
272–273    Fairy tales
274–275    Musical instruments

276–277   SYMBOL SYSTEMS
278–279    Introduction
280–283    Colours
284–289    Shapes
290–293    Patterns
294–299    Numbers
300–305    Picture writing
306–309    Alphabets
310–313    International signs
314–315    Professional signs
316–317    Brands & logos
318–323    Heraldic emblems
324–329    Flags
330–331    Sign languages & signals
334–337    Symbolic gestures

338–343    Glossary
344–345    Further reading
346–351    Index
352            Acknowledgments



ne of our distinguishing features as
Homo sapiens is our enquiring mind.
We have always questioned things, 

not least our existence on Earth: why we are
here, where we come from, what happens after 
death, and what is the meaning behind the 
natural phenomena around us. Over thousands 
of years we have created a framework of beliefs
that allows us, to some extent, to answer these 
ancient questions.

As part of this framework of beliefs, we have
developed an extensive vocabulary of signs 
and symbols that remind us of our unity with 
the cosmos. Both signs and symbols are widely 
recognized, but the difference between the two 
is sometimes unclear.

A sign is straightforward in its function: it may
be a constituent part of a written or a visual
language, a visual vocabulary of warnings 
about the road ahead, or a dramatic statement 
about a company’s product. Signs give us 
a simple message that is of immediate 
momentary relevance.

A symbol, on the other hand, is a visual 
image or sign representing an idea – a deeper
indicator of a universal truth. Fire, for example, 
symbolizes both the Sun and the masculine
life-force that is all around us, while a Spring 
flower represents rebirth and new life. When
viewed in the light of symbols, life becomes 
enriched and meaningful.

From earliest times, symbols have related
to the cosmos, fertility, death, and renewal, but
the advent of psychoanalytical theory has



caused ideas and objects to be examined in
the light of the psyche and psychological 
needs. A dark shadow, for instance, can be seen 
as symbolic of inner insecurities. Many fairy
stories, when analysed, relate to the process 
of growing up, encountering obstacles, and
emerging as adults; for example Little Red Riding 
Hood. For the most part, however, the ancient 
and archetypal symbols relate to the Universe
and our relationship with the cosmos.

Some symbols, such as the circle and the 
bird in flight, are universally recognized. The 
first symbolizes, among other things, birth,
rebirth, and the turning of the seasons, while
the bird can represent the soul’s ascent to 

Heaven. Fabulous beasts, too, have appeared
in art for millennia. These symbolize the joint
qualities of the creatures they represent; a satyr, 
for example, is part-goat, part-man, indicating 
a human’s higher and lower self.

The fact that some symbols appear in widely
scattered parts of the world gives rise to debate
on their origin. Did they occur spontaneously 
as a natural part of human’s unconscious 
urgings, or were they the result of a transfusion
of ideas from one country to another? 

We are increasingly aware of the amount 
of travel that took place in the ancient world. 

SIGNS GIVE US A SIMPLE MESSAGE THAT
IS OF IMMEDIATE MOMENTARY RELEVANCE.

A SYMBOL... IS A VISUAL IMAGE OR SIGN



Trade routes criss-crossed the globe and 
religious ideas, art styles, and even artists 
travelled with the traders. That is how Islam 
reached Southeast Asia, Buddhism extended 
to Japan, and Portuguese is spoken in the heart
of South America. As goods and ideas were 
exchanged, so were symbols, which gained
significance far from their place of origin. 

The dragon, a Chinese creation, is one such
symbol. In China it represents the glory of 
both the Emperor and the Sun, but in 
European Christian art its symbolism is 
negative, representing humankind’s baser self. 

The image of the bird battling the serpent 
is found from New Guinea to the Americas 
and symbolizes the eternal struggle of the sky,
Earth, and waters. Finally, the tao t’ieh, or 
highly stylized face that appears on the bronze 
vessels of Ancient China, re-emerges in the 
gargoyles of European cathedrals and in the 
motifs of cultures around the Pacific Rim.

A universal symbol that probably developed 
in many places simultaneously is that of the
goddess. Often depicted with a large belly and 
breasts, she represents fertility and abundance, 
and her image appears in prehistoric art from 
Malta to the Russian Steppes. She represents
birth and, as the Earth Mother, renewal. 
Sometimes shown as a simple triangle,
symbolic of female genitalia, the goddess 
is also depicted as a circle, representing 
the continuous cycle of birth and rebirth. 

Due to the passage of time and the
development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
the myth of the archetypal goddess has largely
vanished from human consciousness; however, 
some still recognize her symbols, and the
worship of the Virgin Mary remains a partial
link with these beliefs. As people have become 
increasingly disengaged from the natural world,
so the all-producing and all-nurturing goddess 

A UNIVERSAL SYMBOL THATAA
PROBABLY DEVELOPED 

IN MAMM NY PLACES
SIMULTATT NEOUSLY IS 

THAT OF THE GODDESS  AA



has been replaced by creator gods, or by a
transcendent god who appears detached from
the creative process. Male gods, unlike the 
Mother Goddess, control nature.

The use and recognition of symbols enriches 
our lives. Once we see objects as representing 
truths or deeper issues, we begin to develop 
a realization of the dual nature of existence – 
the inner and outer life – all around us. A simple 
ladder, for example, serves both as a tool and
a reminder of the spiritual climb towards
self-awareness or a higher truth; a bowl can
represent the receptive feminine principle 

and creation; a lily rising from the mud can 
be a reminder of purity of spirit; whilst a lamp 
may signify the light of truth. Seeing objects in
this symbolic way allows us to live more 

“harmoniously” by increasing our awareness, 
not only of day-to-day living but also of the
universal truths of existence.

When used in art, symbolism serves as a visual 
language for interpreting a scene; however, 
symbols once routinely used in Renaissance 
art are no longer widely recognized, making it
harder to understand the hidden meaning of 

ONCE WE SEE OBJECTS AS REPRESENTING 
TRUTHS OR DEEPER ISSUES, WE BEGIN TO
DEVELOP AN AWARENESS OF THE DUAL



a painting. In Christian art, for example, birds 
were a well known attribute of St. Francis, as
was the wheel for St. Catherine. Early Buddhist 
art depicted the Buddha in aniconic form: his
body was not shown, but his presence was 
symbolized by a throne or footprint.

More generally, the portrayal of water in art 
might symbolize the unconscious mind or the 
Primordial waters, while Classical goddesses 
often represent specific virtues such as wisdom. 
In more modern art, objects included do not 
necessarily mean anything to the viewer but 
have deep resonance for the artist, such as a 
connection with childhood. Similarly, in the 
Australian Aboriginal Dreaming, a person’s life

and surroundings make up his or her own 
unique “thumbprint”, often painted in the sand.

Symbolism occurs in some famous literary
works. In The Pilgrim’s Progress, a Christian 
allegory, Pilgrim represents everyman, striving 
to attain union with God. In C. S. Lewis’s Narnia
stories, Christian allegory also appears in the 
form of Aslan the lion, who represents Christ.

The symbolic nature of dreams has long
been recognized. Being chased or falling are 
commonly interpreted as symbolic of an 
individual’s fears of growing up and facing 
the responsibilities of adult life. However, it 
is not just in psychoanalysis that dream
symbolism is interpreted as reflecting the

...DREAM SYMBOLISM IS INTERPRETED 
AS REFLECTING THE WORKINGS OF THE 

UNCONSCIOUS MIND



workings of the unconscious mind: many 
societies also recognize its importance. The 
Semai of Malaysia, for example, believed in the
importance of dream symbolism and trained 
themselves to confront symbolic fears while
dreaming, so that they could then resolve the 
underlying fears in their waking life.

While much symbolism has remained 
unchanged for millennia, a new form has
developed. Today’s culture heroes, such as 
Superman and Spider-man, are similar to the 
heroes in ancient creation myths who
performed some heroic deed, such as stealing 
fire for humankind or recreating the world 
after a flood. However, other modern culture
heroes include celebrities, who appeal to 
us because of their looks, because they are 
universally admired, or because their luxurious 
lifestyle represents an ideal to which many 

people aspire. This attraction is presumably
a response to the deep seated insecurities that 
we face today. 

Other symbols are doom-laden: for example,
the mushroom cloud over Hiroshima that 
marked the advent of the atomic bomb, or 
the collapse of the Twin Towers of New York’s
World Trade Center, both of which represent 
our worst fears of annihilation.

Wherever we live, we are surrounded by
symbols – if we choose to see them. We can 
go through life ignorant of this rich imagery,
or we can open our eyes to the deeper truths 
inherent in much that surrounds us. For those 
interested in exploring the philosophical and
the metaphysical, a world filled with symbols
is infinitely rich and rewarding, leading us to 
a greater understanding of ourselves and 
bringing a fresh perspective to our lives.







B
y observing the movement of the 
Sun, the Moon, stars, and planets,
and by noticing the changing 
seasons, humans have gradually 
developed a view of the natural 

rhythm of the Universe. Over milennia, we 
have constructed a cosmology that explained 
our observations and helped us fit into the 
natural order; we also assigned control of 
nature’s forces to gods whom we worshipped.

This led to a widespread belief that in order 
to survive all the horrors that the gods could
unleash, humans and deities needed to co-
operate with one another. So, people made 
sacrifices and offerings to invoke cosmic 
harmony – gentle rain for the crops and fair 
winds for sailors – while natural disasters,

such as devastating droughts,
earthquakes, or floods,

were invariably blamed
on divine retribution.

As a result, cosmic symbolism is closely bound
with religion. The Sun, for example, is a 
universal cosmic symbol for divine power, 
while Buddhists regard fire as the wisdom that
burns away all ignorance. To Christians and 
Hindus water is often symbolic of purification,
and to all the great world religions the
heavens are home to the divine.

Indeed, the sky and everything in it, from
the Moon and stars to thunder and lightning, 
is symbolically associated with the divine
world. Mountains, too, have sacred status 
because of their proximity to the heavens.
They each had their gods, goddesses, and 
supernatural representatives, which varied 
according to culture.

Creation myths and myths concerning a 
global flood are common to all cultures and 
make use of cosmic symbolism as well as 
themes of divine retribution in order to
explain the mysteries of the Universe. Such



symbols were
important to early 
societies because 
they helped people
to live in a more 
harmonious way, 
and also to
understand and 
strive towards
their divine
enlightenment.

Early science 
tried to establish symbolic links with the four 
main constituents of the cosmos, namely earth,
fire, water, and air. Air and fire were regarded 
as symbolically masculine and active, while
earth and water were feminine and passive;
achieving a balance between the elements was
seen as the foundation for cosmic harmony.

Signs and symbols have played a vital role
in broadening our scientific understanding of 

the world in which we live: astronomy and 
astrology, for example, evolved from ancient
times when people used cosmic symbolism to 
explain why planets moved across the sky, or 
why stars formed constellations. Seasonal and 
cosmic symbolism, too, are often intertwined,
as measurements of time have always been 
based on the daily and seasonal movements
of the Sun and the Moon. 

Despite the many discoveries of modern 
science, cosmic symbolism remains relevant 
to many people throughout the world and 
continues to colour our language. Celebrities
are “stars”; many national flags bear cosmic
symbols, such as the Sun and the Moon, 
indicating divine rule and power; precious
stones, particularly birthstones, are still
imbued with symbolic meaning; and astrology 
remains as popular as ever. Even today, we 
still try to find meaning in our world through
signs and symbols.

TO SURVIVE ALL
THE HORRORS
THAT THE GODS
COULD UNLEASH,
HUMANS AND 
DEITIES NEEDED
TO CO-OPERATE 
WITH ONE 
ANOTHER



Most cultures have at some time

worshipped the Sun as the supreme

cosmic power – the life-force that 

enables all things to thrive and

grow. As the source of heat, the 

Sun symbolizes vitality, passion,

and youth. As the source of light, it 

represents enlightenment. It is also

an emblem of royalty and empire.

In some traditions the Sun is the

Universal Father. Its rising and settin

symbolizes birth, death, and resurrec

The winter and summer solstices mark the 
shortest and longest days of the year and have 
inspired myths and festivals worldwide. The 
winter solstice symbolizes the victory of light 
over darkness, or the end of one cycle and the 
beginning of a new cycle of light and growth. 

abundant peak, although it also marks the Sun’s
waning power; druids welcomed the summer
solstice at dawn. Both solstices are marked
with fire, representing the Sun’s warmth and
also fertility.

  The dawn 
Dawn is a symbol of hope, joy, 
and youth. It represents birth,
new beginnings, and freshness.
In Christianity it is a symbol of
resurrection. Often it is used
to symbolize the dawn 
of the world or 
humankind, and 
is therefore also
associated with
many creation myths.

  Eos
The personification of youth, 
hope, and awakening, Eos, 
goddess of the dawn, was
worshipped in Ancient Greece.
Her fingers symbolized the 
pastel fingers of dawn stealing
across the sky, and she was
adorned with morning dew. 

  Stonehenge solstice
Britain’s most potent symbol 
of the summer solstice,
Stonehenge in Wiltshire,
has been a focus for pagan 
celebration for thousands of
years. People gather there to 
greet the dawn as it rises 
over the Heel Stone on 
midsummer’s day. 

represents the Sun’s authority 
over the four compass points
(north, south, east, and west) 

and was used ceremonially.
It originates from the Bella 
Coola or Nuxalk tribe
of British Columbia.

THE SUN

Vessels scattering sparks
of fire to light the dawn



The Sun has been portrayed as the symbolic 
centre of the cosmos. This most brilliant of the 
celestial bodies is a symbol of royalty and imperial 
splendour. The Chinese regard the Sun as an 
imperial Yang symbol. The Japanese use it as 
a national emblem, and believed their 
emperors were directly descended 
from the Sun goddess, Amaterasu. 

Much symbolism is associated with the Sun in 
cultures around the world. Usually personified 
as masculine, it was regarded as female in certain 
cultures, including Japan and some American 
Indian tribes. The most elaborate Sun cults were 
those of Egypt, Central America, and Peru. The 
Sun is seen as a benign, 
fertilizing force, as 
well as a fiery 
destroyer.

  Phoenix 
A universal symbol of death, 
rebirth, and the Sun, the
mythological phoenix is usually
portrayed as an eagle-like bird
rising from the flames.

 Apollo
The Greek god 
Apollo brought life-
giving light to Earth.
Portrayed as
vigorously youthful 
and golden-haired, he
was associated with 
Helios, the god who drove
the Sun’s chariot across the sky.

  Phaeton 
In Greek mythology the journey of the Sun across the sky is
represented as a chariot driven by the Sun god, Helios, travelling
across the heavens. His son, Phaeton, drove the chariot recklessly and
was only stopped when Helios threw a lightning bolt, killing Phaeton.

  Khepri
The Ancient Egyptian god of
the rising Sun, Khepri, was 
associated with the scarab
beetle, which rolls its balls of 
dung, symbolizing the Sun’s 
journey across the sky. It is
associated with new life and
is a lucky charm.

 Icarus 
In Greek mythology Daedalus 
made artificial wings for his 
son, Icaurus. Despite his
father’s warning, Icarus flew
too near the Sun, and his wings 
melted. Symbolically, his pride 
and lack of respect for the gods 
resulted in his downfall.

 Surya 
A Vedic sun god, Surya, 
represents immortality, the 
flames of death and rebirth
(sunset and sunrise); he crosses
the heavens daily in a chariot
drawn by seven fiery horses. 

  Rahu 
The Hindu demon, Rahu, had 
no body and was believed to
swallow the Sun, causing
eclipses. It would reappear
again, as the demon had 
no body to contain it. A 
similar story is known in 
Chinese mythology.

  Freemasonry
In Freemasonry the Sun 
represents divine love, while 
gold signifies benificence of
God, both of which are 
associated with Masonic
beliefs about charity. The
High Altar bears a red cloth
emblazoned with solar symbols.
This image shows a member 
of a Masonic lodge composed
of the tools of his trade and is 

  Sun King 
Louis XIV of France claimed 
the solar symbol as his emblem, 
and became known as the Sun
King. He was famous for the 
splendour of his lifestyle.

 Japanese flag 
The Sun has been used as a 
symbol of power on several 
flags. Japan’s flag bears a red
disc representing the rising Sun.

SEE ALSO
Gold pp.44–45
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Greek & Roman deities

pp.140–41
Hinduism pp.158–63

Sun-head, symbol of day

Dung ball

Key 
represents
the heart

Compasses

Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Christianity pp.176–79 
Freemasonry pp.260–61
Colours pp.280–83 
Flags pp.324–29



The mysterious Moon has always 

captured the human imagination.

Its luminous presence in the night 

sky made it a symbol of hope and

enlightenment. Like the Sun, it is

often associated with birth, death, 

and resurrection, but it also contro

the waters and is a fertility symbol.

Presiding over dreams, the Moon is

linked with bemusement; its dark s

relates to the occult. Its feminine

qualities bind it to the Mother God

The Moon’s cyclical journey through the heavens 
and its constantly evolving form provided early 
societies with a powerful symbol for the cycle of 
human life. From crescent to full Moon, its forms 
were each attributed a special significance, as 
were lunar eclipses. In addition to influencing 
the tides, weather, and life in general, the Moon 
was credited with ruling over human destiny. 

  Lunar eclipse
Worldwide, cultures have
developed myths about eclipses. 
Many believe they are omens of
natural disasters or a ruler’s 
death. Certain Asian cultures 
thought eclipses were caused
by a demon or dragon 
swallowing the Moon.

Waxing and waning
The cyclical waxing and waning of the Moon 
is symbolic of birth, life, death, and rebirth.
The crescent, waxing Moon represents growth, 
while the waning Moon is associated with death.

The shadows created by craters on the surface of the Moon have
fascinated people throughout history and have been the inspiration 
for myths and stories around the world. 

THE MOOTTTTTTTTTTTT

  Mayan calendars
The Maya had a system of 
interlocking calendars tracking 
and combining the cycles of the
Moon, Sun, Venus, and the
Pleiades. Other calendars, 
including the Roman, Chinese, 
Jewish, Celtic, and Islamic, are
based on the lunar cycles.

HE FULL MOON
The full Moon shares the symbolism of the 
circle as an image of wholeness and strength. 
The Chinese associate it with the essence 
of Yin and the fof Yin and the feminine; to Buddhists it 
represents spiritual power. The Harvest Moon 
a full Moon near th(a full Moon near the September equinox) 

mbolizes agricultural fertility. The word symbolizes agricultural fertility. The word 
ome“lunatic” comes from the Latin for moon, luna,
lly meant “Moonstand originally meant “Moonstruck”. The full 

Moon was thought to 
worsen lunacy and 

is associated with 
urwild behaviour

mals in animals 
humand humans. 

WOLF HOWLING 
AT THE MOON

Images on the outer circle 
indicate the month



Some cultures in Oceania and certain African tribes see the 
Moon as a fertilizing male god, but it is usually regarded as 
feminine. As the Queen of Heaven, the Virgin Mary is 

associated with the Moon, and lunar deities 
range from protective mother figures to 

fierce virgin goddesses, such as the
Roman hunter goddess, Diana. All Moon 
goddesses are seen as weavers of destiny 

and are often portrayed as a spider.

  Coyolxauhqui
The Aztecs believed that the daily movements of

the Sun and Moon symbolically re-enacted a battle 
between Moon goddess, Coyolxauhqui, and the Sun, 

resulting in her decapitation.

Twin sister of the Greek Sun god, Apollo, Artemis 
merged with Moon goddesses, Selene and Hecate. 
Artemis, virginal hunting goddess, is the New
Moon, mature Selene is the full Moon, and 
mysterious Hecate the dark side of the Moon.

  Ixchel
Ixchel is the Maya
Moon goddess.
A mother goddess 
who controls the life-

giving rains, she has 
both nurturing and 

destructive qualities.

  Bastet
The Egyptian goddess, Bastet, is sometimes
referred to as a Moon goddess, possibly due to the
fact that the Greeks identified her with Artemis, 
goddess of hunting and the Moon. She is
associated with lunar fertility symbolism.

 Chang E
The Chinese goddess, Chang E,
is the Eastern version of the 
“Man in the Moon”. Offerings
are made to her at the annual 
Moon Festival.

SEE ALSO
The night sky pp.20–23
The seasons pp.40–41
Mammals pp.52–55
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
Egyptian deities pp.138–39

HASHAPESHIFTERS
Shapeshifting is a common theme in fShapeshifting is a common theme in folklore and many
ultures tell stocultures tell stories of people turning into ferocious animals

at nighat night, particularly during a full Moon. Symbolically these
s can be associated with the Moon’s dark aspect and itsstories can be associated with the Moon’s dark aspect and its

links with the occult. They also represent a fear that humanslinks with the occult. They also represent a fear that humans
are easily overtaken by base animal instare easily overtaken by base animal instinct. Involuntary
shapeshifting signifies confinement, while voluntary formsshapeshifting signifies confinement, while voluntary forms
symbolize liberation. Were-wolfsymbolize liberation. Were-wolf

hs wmyths were common in Europe,
ut elsewhebut elsewhere animal

shapeshifters included were-shapeshifters included were-
aguars, were-tigers, were-jaguars, were-tigers, were-

foxes, and were-badgers.
Shamans and witches were
credited with shapeshifting
powers, travelling in this

etween the hform between the human
rldsand spirit worlds.

WWEERREE-FOX

WERE-WOLF

WERE-JAGUAR

Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
Meso- & South American 

deities pp.144–45
Shamanism pp.154–55





1

5

4
3

2

6

The early astronomers noted that besides the Sun and the Moon, 
there were five small moving lights in the sky, which were only just
visible to the naked eye. They called these lights planetes, meaning 
“wanderers”, and named them after the gods of Ancient Rome – 
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The invention of the 
telescope in the 15th century led to the discovery of more distant 
planets – Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. All the planets were given
characteristics based on their colour, movement, and size. Planets were
thought to have some sort of connection with people, and to influence 
a particular day of the week. In medieval times alchemists matched
them with metals. Andreas Cellarius’s depiction of the cosmos, first 
published in the Harmonia Macrocosmica in 1660, is based on the
system developed by the second-century astronomer Ptolemy that
incorrectly placed the Earth at the centre of the cosmos.

1.  Mercury
Named after the messenger god, Mercury is linked to reason,
commerce, Wednesday, and the metal quicksilver.

2.  Venus
Named after the goddess of love, Venus is associated with sexuality,
desire, rebirth, and happiness. It is linked with Friday and copper.

3.  Mars
Personified by a forceful male, Mars symbolizes violence,
passion, fire, and bravery. Its day is Tuesday, and its metal iron.

4.  Jupiter
Symbolic of balance and justice, Jupiter is associated with
Thursday and the metal tin.

5.  Saturn
Represented by a bearded elderly man, Saturn is about morality, 
melancholy, and rigidity. It is symbolic of Saturday and lead. 

6.  Planets as signs
As well as illustrating the planets as gods in his depiction 
of the cosmos, Cellarius also included the sign associated with 
each planet. Such signs are utilized in both astrology and alchemy.



The awe-inspiring mystery and infinity

of space has held sway over humans for

thousands of years. Stars and planets – 

shining like beacons in the dark – were 

associated with supernatural forces

symbolizing guidance, divine influence,

and aspiration. Astronomy and astrology 

evolved from ancient times when observers 

noticed the wanderings of the planets across 

the night sky, and saw patterns (constellations) 

in the stars. Star symbols are used on flags, 

in religion, and to denote celebrity.

Representing divine guidance, guardianship, 
and hope, stars are hugely important symbols. 
American Indians believed that they represented 
the campfires of their ancestors, and other 
cultures thought they were gateways to Heaven 
or angelic messengers of the gods. In Christianity 
the Star of Bethlehem heralded the birth of 
Christ, and some saints are depicted with a 
star in Christian art. In heraldry the star is the 
ensign of knightly rank. The zodiac is made 
up of 12 star signs.

  Hollywood stars
The Hollywood Walk
of Fame in Los Angeles,
sis embedded with 

more than 2,000 stars,more than 2,000 stars,
bearing the nameeach bearing the name 

of a celebrity who has
made an impact on the 

ainment industryentertainment industry.

  Five-pointed star
Known as a pentagram, a five-pointed star drawn upwards symbolizes
aspiration, the spiritual world, and education; Christians see it as a
symbol of Christ as “Alpha and Omega” (first and last). When 
inverted, the pentagram signifies the devil.

  Constellations
A constellation is a grouping of
stars that forms a recognizable 
pattern. There are 88 known 
groups named after characters
from classical mythology.

THE NIGHTTTTT T SKY

 Six-pointed star
Known as a hexagram or the 
Star of David in Judaism, this 
star is formed from two 
triangles, symbols of the male
and female principles. It is a 
symbol for the link between 
Heaven and Earth and represents
the union of opposites and
creation. The symbol is also
known as the Seal of Solomon,
after a design on a ring owned
by the prophet King Solomon.

MODERN STARARSTT
Today stars are often used to symbolize our 
hopes and wishes. They are also associated 

people are labellwith celebrity, and famous people are labelled 
uently used oas “stars”. Stars are frequently used on flags, 

k of qand rows of stars are a mark of quality. The 
first flag to use the five-poinfirst flag to use the five-pointed star was that 

f the newly formed USA inof the newly formed USA in 1777.

TEXAS FLAG, THE LONE-STAR STT TATT TAA E

AUSTRALIAN FLAG

  Shooting stars
Representing sparks of heavenly 
fire, shooting stars were a sign
of divinity. They acted as
heavenly messengers, reminding 
people of the existence of a
higher life. Seen as a good
omen, they also signified birth.

Female
principle

Male principle

Scorpio



Heavenly symbols are linked to royalty and 
governance and indicate the divine presence. 
Early cultures believed that the stars influenced 
human life, often as divinities. Many stories are 
told about the symbolism of stars and there are 
numerous gods and goddesses associated with 
them. Stars also formed the crowns of several of 
the world’s major fertility goddesses, including 
Ishtar from Babylon, and the Virgin Mary.

 Isis and Osiris
The Egyptian goddess of fertility 
and motherhood, Isis, was the
wife of Osiris, Lord of the Dead,
whose soul inhabited the star
Orion. She was symbolized by 
the star Sirius, which heralded
the annual flooding of the Nile, 
bringing renewed prosperity 
and fertility to the country; 
Sirius’s appearance also marked
the beginning of the new year.

 Virgin Mary
As Queen of Heaven, the
Virgin Mary is shown wearing 
a crown of stars. She is also 
associated with the six-pointed 
Marian Star.

In primitive cultures sky-watching was an 
important part of life, and celestial phenomena 
were considered highly significant. When these 
coincided with events on Earth, they evolved 
into omens. Many myths and superstitions are 
associated with the aurora from which the 
dragon legends of the West and China are 
believed to have originated. St. Elmo’s Fire, 
a continuous electric spark that occurs during 
thunderstorms, was regarded by sailors as an 
omen of divine intervention. The Maya thought 
that the Milky Way was a great white serpent 
writhing across the night sky.

 Northern Lights
The colourful, magical display of the Northern Lights is regarded 
as a sign of royal birth in some cultures. Elsewhere, it heralds war
or the presence of ghosts. In Nordic mythology the aurora was seen
as feminine.

 Milky Way
The Aztecs called the Milky Way
Mixcoatyl (Cloud Serpent) and ga
its name to the god of the Pole S
Many cultures believed that the 
Way was a road or river linking 
Earth and Heaven: to American
Indians it was a pathway to the
land of the dead, while the 
Inca imagined it was a 
heavenly river.

  Ishtar
The five-pointed star was the
emblem of the Sumerian fertility
goddess, Ishtar, in her warrior
aspect as the morning star.

  Star and crescent
The crescent emblem of 
Islam signifies divine authority 
and resurrection and, in 
conjunction with a five-pointed
star, Paradise.

 Maori doorway decoration
According to Maori beliefs, the 
star warded off evil. It was also
linked with going into battle.

 Pole Star
In Ancient Egypt the soul of a 
dead pharaoh was thought to 
inhabit the Pole Star. It was also 
linked with the god Seth and
the Phoenician god Baal Sapon.

Isis

Osiris

SEE
Egyptian deities
Celtic & Nordic deities

pp.142–43
Judaism pp.172–73
Christianity pp.176–79

Western astrology pp.200–01
Shapes pp.284–89
Flags pp.324–29



Our view of the Earth has changed from 

early beliefs that it was flat or supported

by animals, to the iconic symbol of a

blue planet spinning in space. This

modern view of the Earth has come to

represent global unity. But the ancient 

ideas of a fecund Earth Mother remain

embedded in our psyche. Its landscapes,

violent eruptions, and raw materials, 

including soil itself are all strongly linked 

to symbolism, religion, and rituals.

 Bryce Canyon
In Bryce Canyon, Utah, erosion
has created distinctive pillars 
and spires within a spectacular 
amphitheatre of red rock. The 
American Indian Paiute believed 
that these pinnacles were the 
Legend People, turned to stone 
by the trickster Coyote.

  Venus of Laussel 
This 21,000-year-old rock 
carving from the Dordogne, 
France, shows the Earth Mother
holding a bison horn, signifying 
the crescent Moon and the 
Universal Vulva, or life source.

THE EARTH

 Gaia  
The Universal Mother of Greek
mythology, Gaia means “Earth”. 
The Earth can also be seen as
the goddesses Persephone, 
Demeter, or Hecate. Here Gaia 
is emerging from the Earth and
handing her son to Athena as
King Kekrops looks on.

  Cihuacoatl 
The Aztec goddess of 
the Earth and childbirth,
Cihuacoatl, devoured 
the dead to sustain the
living. Her name means 
“Snake Woman” and 
she is sometimes
depicted holding a 
child in her arms. Her 
roar signalled war.

  Demeter  
The Greek Earth goddess is
associated with harvest, grain, 
and with teaching humans how
to sow and plough. As a fertility
goddess, Demeter is sometimes
identified with Gaia.

  Mithra   
In Persia Mithra, god of light
and the upper air, was born
from a rock. He was usually
portrayed slaying a bull,
overcoming animal passions.

  C
A goddess of nature and fertility,
Cybele was worshipped in Rome
in the form of a stone, having 
been born from a black rock
hurled from the heavens.

In early times the Earth was worshipped as the 
great Mother Goddess, a figure of sustenance and 
nurturing, and the source of all life. According 
to many creation myths, the first humans were 
made from clay, and coupling in furrows was 
a feature of some rural spring fertility festivals. 
The element Earth represents the feminine and 
passive, or the Yin of Chinese symbolism. It is 
traditionally portrayed by a circle.

Signifying strength, integrity, and refuge, rock is 
also associated with divinity. In ancient cultures, 
rocks were given sacred significance in the form 
of standing stones. Among American Indians, 
rocks represented the bones of Mother Earth and 
served as a focus for burial. In 
Christianity rock represents 
both Christ and the Church.

THE EARTH



SEE ALSO
Reptiles & amphibians

pp.64–65
Aquatic creatures pp.68–71
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
Greek & Roman deities 

pp.140–41
Hinduism pp.158–63
Tribal totems, heroes &

tricksters pp.150–51

  Valley 
Representing fertility, the valley is where animals graze and people
settle. Valleys signify a sheltering, feminine aspect. In Chinese
symbolism the valley is the Yin, shadowy, gentle, feminine state, 
in contrast to the sunny Yang of the mountain. Valleys can also be 
seen as places of dread, such as the Valley of the Shadow of Death.

 Caves 
A primal symbol of shelter, caves symbolize the 
womb and are linked to birth, rebirth, and the 
centre of the universe. Darker interpretations of 
caves are associated with the Underworld, the
gates of Hell, and the unconscious.

 Desert
Desert landscapes symbolize barrenness, 
desolation, abandonment, and the battle for
survival – often against temptation. In both the 
Christian and Islamic religions they signify a place
of retreat, meditation, and enlightenment.

 Japanese earthquakes 
Some ancient cultures attributed violent earthquakes to the
movements of the animals they thought supported the Earth. The Ainu

of Japan believed their islands were supported by a giant catfish 
called Namazu who was restrained by Kashima with a stone. 

  Volcano goddess
The Ancient Hawaiian volcano 
goddess, Pele, was volatile and 
capricious and lived in the
craters of the Big Island’s
Kilauea Volcano. She caused 
earthquakes by stamping her
feet and volcanic eruptions by 
digging with her magic stick.

  Hindu earthquakes 
In one Hindu interpretation 
of the cosmos, the Earth was
carried by four male elephants 
standing on a female tortoise, 
representing the two creative 
powers. It was their movement 
that set off earthquakes.

  Mount Fuji 
An iconic symbol of
Japan, Mount Fuji is
regarded as sacred in
both Shinto and Buddhism. 
Thousands of people make an
annual pilgrimage to its summit.
One meaning of the name “Fuji”  
is “deity of fire”.

Whatever our relationship with the land, it is bound up with identity, 
nationhood, and life itself. The Earth’s varied landscapes are rich in 
symbolism and meaning that reflect the origins, religious beliefs, 
and rituals of the people who live in them. 

Ancient stories often liken the violence of earthquakes and 
volcanoes to the awakening of a sleeping monster or the anger 
of the gods, and there is a rich vein of symbolism linked to 
the destructive power of the gods and the creative force. The 
Japanese thought the storm god, Susano-O, conjured up 
earthquakes, while the Greeks believed that Poseidon, the 
“Earth-shaker”, was the culprit. Sacrifices were made to 
appease the gods. Often seismic activity was regarded as an 
omen of great change in religion or politics; the Bible tells of 
earthquakes heralding Christ’s death. 

Stone





1

3

2

4

Chinese landscape painting has 
been a major art form since the 
T’ang dynasty (618–907CE). At 
a time of political unrest such 
paintings symbolized the peace 
and tranquillity of our union 
with nature, and a human figure 
is often set against the backdrop 
of mountains and water. Each 
element of the painting is 
symbolic and the whole 
signifies order and harmony. 

1. & 2.  Yin and Yang
Yin (passive, cool, feminine) is found 
wherever there is fluidity and softness.
It is symbolized here in the quiet valley, the
water, and the graceful bending of bamboo. 
All forms of cloud and mist are symbols
of Yin. Yang (active, warm, masculine) is 
represented as force and light. Here the
thrusting mountains, hard rocks, sky, and 
the brightness of water are all Yang.   

3.  United elements
Taoists believe in a mystic sense of cosmic
brotherhood that unites all the elements. As 
the philosopher Chuang Tzu put it, “Heaven
and Earth and I live together, and all things 
and I are one”. Here the dominant mountain 
is flanked by lesser mountains, and larger or
smaller rocks and trees symbolize the belief
that all elements within nature are related.

4.  Human figure
People are often included in Chinese
landscapes. Their size emphasizes the fact
that humans are a small part of a vast cosmic
creation. The figure shown here could be 
meditating or thinking; if men and women do
not follow their proper wisdom, the whole
cosmic order is damaged. 

Shen Zhou, Figure Sitting on a Riverbank



  Mount Sumeru
Hindus and Buddhists regard the mythological Mount Sumeru, or
Meru, as representing the centre of the universe. It is often found,
as above, in Tibetan mandalas, used to aid meditation.



As near to Heaven as you can get on Earth, mountains are revered,

sometimes feared, and regarded as sacred by the world’s religions.

They are often associated with gods, spirits, and prophets.

Mountains command attention. Towering over us, their peaks 
often wreathed in cloud, they stand apart from our daily 
existence: remote, challenging, and mysterious. Seen as the 
embodiment of cosmic forces and life, for early cultures 
mountains represented the Earth’s 
spiritual centre and axis at the point 
where it joins Heaven: a divine meeting 
place for God and humans in a space and 
time apart. Men built temples in the shape 
of mountains to represent the spiritual 
ascent of the soul.

High places have always been associated 
with sacred quests and are a symbol of 
spiritual transcendence, purity, and even 
eternity. Climbing a mountain is arduous, 
the air becomes thinner, causing breathing 
difficulties and hallucinations. Conquering the summit is a 

supreme achievement, and the view from the top offers 
a fresh perspective. This can be likened to a spiritual 

journey, at the summit of which the pure-
hearted attain enlightenment.

Many mountains are considered sacred. In
China there are nine sacred mountains that

Buddhists venerate. Some mountains, 
such as Croag Patrick in Ireland or 
Mount Fuji in Japan, inspire people to
climb them. Such sacred pilgrimages 
represent aspiration, renunciation of 

worldly desires, and enlightenment;
spritually, mountain peaks are linked to 

the state of full consciousness.

Mountains have long been associated with biblical revelations,
prophets, gods (especially Sun and weather gods), and heroes.
Mount Olympus was the home of the Classical Greek gods,

from where they ruled the world and 
human affairs. Moses climbed to the top 
of Mount Sinai to receive the Ten 
Commandments from God. Legend has it 
that the Prophet Muhammad turned the 
immutability of mountains into an 
allegory for humility when he ordered 
Mount Safa to move.

The American Indian Navajo thought
certain mountains embodied important 
nature spirits, while in Mexico Mount 
Tlaloc was thought to personify an Aztec 
fertility and rain god. 

For the Ancient Egyptians mountains
represented Earth’s desire for sky. They showed the body of 
sky goddess, Nut, curved over that of her lover. The upward-
thrusting mountain symbolizes this physical desire. This belief 
is similar to the Chinese idea that a mountain’s phallic shape
makes it a masculine or Yang symbol signifying life.

Temples built in the shape of mountains, such as those
in Asia, Central America, and Mesopotamia, represent the
cosmic centre. Their terraces are associated with both spiritual
ascent and gateways to Heaven. The Egyptian pyramids have 
similar cosmological significance. Mountains with twin
summits are regarded as either the seat of astral or solar
divinities or, as in China, Sumeria, and the Hebrew mountains
of Sinai and Horeb, the seat of the Sun and the Moon.

 Mountains of the Immortals
his Chinese vessel shows the Taoist symbol 
f the Mountains of the Immortals. In China

mountains are venerated and are the home 
f deities and spirits.

MOUNTAINS

SEE ALSO
The Earth pp.24–25
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Meso- & South American deities

pp.144–45

 Mount of Olives
In the Bible Jesus was said to have 
ascended to Heaven from the Mount 
of Olives outside Jerusalem.

  Mexican temple
These four-sided, mountain-like structures had stairs 
going up one or more sides, and flat tops where
sacrifices took place. Old temples were not destroyed 
but simply built over so that they became many-layered.

Buddhism pp.164–69 
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Sacred places pp.232–33
Patterns pp.290–93



Terrible and all-consuming, fire is the great 

destroyer. Symbolic of war and chaos, its 

qualities are active and masculine. It is also 

linked with the Sun. People or objects may

be referred to as “fiery”, and extreme 

emotions are associated with the colour red.

Fire has a dual personality as it also

symbolizes purification and regeneration,

home, hearth, and divine love. When people 

learned how to make fire, it was life-

changing and all early cultures had fire 

gods and fire-making legends.

Fire is associated with the space above us: it 
comes from the sky in the form of the Sun or 
lightning, and smoke drifts up to the heavens. 
It is easy to see why this all-powerful element, 
both violent and beneficent, was attributed to 
the gods. The worship or deification of fire is 
known from many religions and dates back to 
early humans. Fire gods feature in cultures 
around the globe. The Greeks and Romans had 
gods of both the forge and the hearth.

FIREII

  Chantico
The Aztec goddess of volcanoes 
and the hearth, Chantico had a 
tongue of fire. She was
patroness of the goldsmiths.

  Sehkmet
Often depicted as a woman
with the head of a lioness, and
carrying a fire-spitting cobra, 
this bloodthirsty Egyptian war
goddess destroyed enemies 
with fire arrows; her body
shimmered like the midday Sun.

  Chu Jung
A Chinese fire god, Chu Jung 
punished those who broke the 
laws of Heaven. He is often l
depicted wearing armour, and 
is most famous for fighting hism
son to stop him from usurpinghhiiim
the throne of Heaven.HHea

 Agni
A Vedic god, Agni’s name
means “fire” in Sanskrit. He is 
shown with either one or two
heads, indicating both his 
destructive and merciful
qualities, and is seen as the life
force of trees and plants.

 Vulcan
The Roman god, Vulcan, is

associated with fire, volcanoes,
and craftsmanship. He made 
weapons for gods and heroes
in his forge beneath Mount 
Etna, and was celebrated at 
the August Vulcanalia festival.

 Huehueteotl
An Aztec god of light and fire,
Huehueteotl is often depicted
as an old man with a red or
yellow face and a censer 
(incense burner) on his head. 

  Raging fire
The height and glowing red
colour of the flames of a forest
fire emphasize its power.
Fire can be a destructive
or a creative force.



When people learned to kindle a fire they had the means to cook, keep 
warm, deter wild beasts and, later, to smelt ore. Numerous legends about 
how humans learned to make fire also describe the earliest fire-making
tools. For example, the legendary Iranian king, Hushang, realized that fire 
could be created by striking flints together after throwing a flint-axe at a 
snake; it struck a rock instead, igniting sparks.

 Maui
The god Maui features in many 
Polynesian legends, especially
those of the Maoris and the
Hawaiians. In Hawaii the hawk 
is personified as Maui, who 
stole fire from the Earth Mother
and was singed by the flames,
which is why hawk feathers are
brown. There is a similar Maori
version of this story.

SEE ALSO
The Sun pp.16–17
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Greek & Roman deities

pp.140–41
Meso- & South American

deities pp.144–45

Its associations with regeneration, purification, and the divine ensured 
that fire played a ceremonial part in many different cultures and religions. 
It had a central role in the sacrificial rites of the Aztecs, who ritually burned 
tobacco and incense, along with body parts. Among Zoroastrians, who 
traditionally worship in fire temples, it represents the energy of the Creator. 
Other cultures, such as the North American Indians, used fire in their 
purification ceremonies and vision quests.

  Zoroastrian 
Zoroastrian temples house Zoroastrian temples house 
the sacred fire, a symbol of the 
gods. This is kept constantly 
alight by priests; worshippers 
wear white linen masks to 
prevent their breath from 
contaminating it. 

 Fire crackers
In China the noise of fire
crackers at New Year is 
designed to scare away evil
spirits and misfortune. It also
awakens the golden dragon
so that it flies across the sky,
bringing rain for the crops.

  Aztec
AAztec priests heralded potential z
world destruction every 52 
years by dousing all fires and 
lighting a new fire within the
chest cavity of a human
sacrificial victim, symbolizing
that out of sacrifice came life.

 Prometheus
The Greek god, Prometheus, tricked Zeus into eating bones instead
of meat. As a punishment for his treatment, Zeus retaliated by 
withholding fire from mortals, which Prometheus later stole.

Hinduism pp.158–63
Colours pp.280–83

DIVINE FLAME
mFire is an important feature in many religions.

sociatedIn Christianity Hell is associated with fire and
witsome saints are depicted with flaming hearts.

n churches candIn Christian churches candles represent God’s
ife.presence, hope, and life. O sld Testament stories
stell of the burning bush.

e worEnlightening the world
On Ellis Island in New York
City, the Statue of Liberty
holds holds her torch aloft, a symbol

m from oppressionof freedom from oppression.

FLAMAMING HEART BBURNING BUSHSH

FLAMETERNAL FLAME
An eternal flame is a light that is always kept 
burning. In ancient times they were fuelled 
by olive oil or wood; modern versions use 
propane or natural gas. Eternal flames 
symbolize a person, group, or event of 
international significance, or even a noble 
goal such as world peace. The Olympic torch 
is lit in Greece, 
carried to the 
host city and 
kept alight 
during the
Games. Many 
churches have 
an eternal flame 
on or above the altar. 



Water constantly changes shape and 

transforms. Symbolically it is feminine and 

associated with the Moon and, as the origin 

of all life, with fertility. It may appear as rain 

or snow, as a raging torrent or placid lake. It 

also has various states, such as running,

stagnant, stormy, or deep, each with its own

symbolism. Although water is passive, it 

is influenced by the weather and can destroy,

dissolve, wash away, or regenerate. It is also 

a source of purification and healing in

many religions.

WATER

Regarded as symbolically maternal, the sea’s depths represent the Earth’s 
womb. All life sprang from its primordial waters, as reflected in the creation 
myths of numerous cultures. Often seen as mysterious, the sea also 
represents the unconscious mind, while deep waters have a symbolism 
related to the dead and the supernatural. There are many gods, spirits, and 
monsters associated with the sea and with natural phenomena such as 
whirlpools and tsunamis. 

 Nun 
The most ancient of the Ancient
Egyptian gods, Nun’s name 
means “water”. He represented 
the primeval water of chaos 
from which emerged creation.
His qualities were darkness,
boundlessness, and turbulence.

WATER ANDWATER AND WORSHIP  
Water is central to manyWater is central to many of 
the world’s religions. In 
Christian baptism, 

cpictured here, it
symbolizes 
purificapurification and the
waswashing away of 
original sin. In Horiginal sin. In Hinduism 
watewater is also used to 
babathe and purify ritual
maimages of the divine.

  Sedna  
In Inuit mythology, Sedna was a 
sea goddess and guardian of
ocean animals. She ruled the
Inuit underworld, Adlivun.
Different Inuit groups call 
Sedna by different names. She
was worshipped by those who 
hunted the waters, who relied 
on her goodwill to supply food.

  Waves 
Constantly driving forward through peaks and troughs, waves
represent both constancy and changeability; people speak of 
waves of joy or sadness. Tidal waves symbolize destruction and
regeneration; in dreams they may mean a fear of change.

  Neptune 
The Roman name for the Greek god Poseidon, Neptune was the god 
of the sea. He was depicted as a bearded man holding a trident and
sitting in a seashell accompanied by dolphins. His fiery temper
supposedly manifested itself in storms and earthquakes.

 Charybdis  
The daughter of Poseidon, Charybdis
became a sea monster when Zeus stole her 
body, leaving only a mouth that became a
whirlpool. In mythology Charybdis occupied
one side of a narrow strait, while Scylla,
another sea monster, took the other. Sailors 
navigating the strait too close to one side or
the other risked death. 



  Delta  
A delta is symbolic of death and
journey’s end, marking a river’s long
meanderings from its source all the 
way down to where it spills into 
the sea.

SEE ALSO
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Greek & Roman deities pp.140–41
Hinduism pp.158–63
Buddhism pp.164–69
Taoism & Shinto pp.170–71
Witches & wicca pp.192–93

Traditionally a lake represents peace and 
contemplation. Since its surface presents a 
reflection, there is also a strong link to mirror 
symbolism: in Greek legend Narcissus drowned 
while admiring his reflection in a lake. 
In China lakes signify wisdom, absorption, 
and passivity. In Hinduism and Buddhism lakes 
attached to temples represent creation and 
the transition to the next life.

River symbolism is based around running water 
and reflects the creative power of nature and 
time. It signifies fertility and soil irrigation, giving 
life along its banks, yet is also a metaphor for the 
passage of time – a river flows from its source 
to the sea, as life flows from birth to death. A 
river can also symbolize a barrier between two 
realms, Life and Death. Great rivers are given 
personalities and many are considered sacred. 
Numerous cultures have river gods and spirits.

WAWATER AND EVIL
tIn past centuries, women suspected 

of being witches were thrown into 
deep water. If they drowned, they 
were presumed innocent, but were presumed innocent, but if the 
water rwater rejected them and they 
floated, they could be cofloated, they could be condemned 
for witchcrfor witchcraft.  

  Spring 
Springs like this one in Bali
are often attributed with
healing or magical powers.
Often towns were built around
springs and their name may 
reflect this. Bath, in England,
is one example of a town that
grew around a hot spring.

  Hapi  
The Egyptian god of the Nile
floods, Hapi, was portrayed as 
a man with a prominent belly,
indicating the fertility of the
land through flooding.

 Styx 
In Greek mythology the River 
Styx formed the boundary
between Earth and Hades.
Legends feature the ferryman, 
Charon, who took the dead
across the River Acheron, which
flowed into the Styx.

  Four rivers of Paradise  
The Bible’s Rivers of Paradise
flowed out in the cardinal 
directions from the roots of
the Tree of Life. Their waters 
symbolized life and nourishment.

 Ganga  
Representing the sacred water
of the River Ganges, the Hindu
goddess, Ganga, is shown
sitting on a makara, a
combination of fish and 
crocodile, denoting fertility and
the wisdom of land and sea. 

  Waterfall 
Buddhists believe that 
waterfalls represent the
“permanent impermanence”
of the universe, which is partly
why they play an important role
in Chinese and Japanese
landscape painting. In Shinto
waterfalls are held sacred and 
standing under one is thought 
to purify the soul.

  Sacred lake 
A sacred lake was central to most Ancient
Egyptian temples. Pictured is the Temple of
Amon at Karnak. The sacred lake was used for
a daily ritual during which a goose, symbol of
Amon himself, was freed at sunrise.



Changes in the weather have a fundamental

impact on humans and can sometimes create 

life or death situations. People have long

associated these vagaries

with the whims of the

THE WEATHER

Storms are often associated with warrior gods and supreme deities.
Thunder was seen in many cultures as the creative power and harbinger
of vital, fertilizing rain. In Bible stories it represented God’s voice, while
lightning delivered fecundity and illumination. A thunderbolt was the
weapon of choice for the Greek god, Zeus, and the Hindu god of war,
Indra. The Thunderbird of American Indian belief represents the Universal
Spirit and is linked with war.

 Ryujin  
Ryujin is the most important of
the Rajin, Japanese weather
gods. He is usually portrayed as
a demon, forming mists and
black rain clouds, and beating
drums to create thunder. He
also devours children’s
bellybuttons.

Shango
Sacred to Nigeria’s Yoruba
people, Shango is a god of
thunder and lightning. His
symbol is the oshe, a double-
headed axe representing the
stone thunderbolts he hurls 
from the sky.

  Shiva
In Hinduism lightning or 
destructive fire is the third 
eye on the forehead of Shiva. 
It symbolizes divine force,
cosmic intelligence,
enlightenment, and the forces
of destruction and regeneration.
One of his weapons is a trident, 
representing lightning.

 Thor
Thor is the red-haired and bearded god of 
thunder and war in Nordic mythology. Often 
portrayed wielding a hammer or thunderbolt, his
chariot was pulled across the sky by two goats
with the unlikely names of Tooth-grinder 
and Tooth-gnasher.

 Rudra
The Vedic forerunner of the Hindu god, Shiva, Rudra was a god of
storms and lightning who fired arrows of disease, but who also 
brought good health and performed good deeds. His name means
“Howler” or “Red One” and he personifies untamed nature.

Marduk
Marduk, the Babylonian 
creator god, placed the 
Mesopotamian god, Enlil,
in the air and gave him the 
power to induce storms and 
spring breezes with his breath.

 Tala wipiki
This kachina, or spirit doll, 
represents lightning. It was
made by the American Indian
Hopis who lived in the desert
lands of New Mexico. Due to its
associations with rain, the tala
wipiki kachina is considered 
benevolent today. 

gods, and blamed folklore personifications 

such as the North Wind for cold weather. As

well as being linked with divine retribution

and supernatural powers, the weather is also

associated with benign forces and creativity.

This female figurine balances the
symbol of lightning and is used 
in a dance to Shango, god of 
thunder and lightning



 Cherub 
These winged celestial beings
(also known as “putti”) are 
often portrayed as chubby-
cheeked children, and in western
art were used to represent 
wind, perhaps blowing a boat.

Whirlwind
Symbolizing circular, solar, and creative movement, whirlwinds are 
often seen as a vehicle for divinity: in the Bible God spoke to Job from
a whirlwind. In witchcraft evil spirits rode on whirlwinds.

Vayu
From the Sanskrit “blow”, Vayu 
is the god of the winds in India;
as one of the five elements,
he is one of the most important
deities in the Vedas (Hindu

 Fujin 
The Japanese Shinto god,
Fujin, was portrayed as a 
fearsome-looking deity sitting
on or traversing the clouds
and carrying a sack containing

The symbolism of weather conditions from 
wispy mists to brooding storm banks can be 
varied. Rain clouds are linked with fecundity, 
hence the reference “pregnant with rain”. In 
Judeo-Christian tradition they can indicate God’s 
presence, while in China pink clouds symbolize 

In modern times wind has become a symbol 
of change and freedom, but traditionally it is 
linked with the four compass points, the 
gods, and even demons. Its role in pollination 
also makes wind a sexual symbol. The Apache 
American Indians believed that the whorls 
on the fingertips represented the wind’s path 
as it entered the body at creation. In China 
wind is associated with rumour, a symbolism 
linked to hunting and “getting wind” 
of a scent. 

good luck and happiness. In some cultures 
clouds are associated with gloom; people also 
link being out of touch with reality as having 
one’s head “in the clouds”. Mist is often 
associated with supernatural intervention, 
especially in Chinese landscape painting.

 The indeterminate
Fog and mist are commonly used to symbolize the indeterminate,
or the state that comes before revelation. Taoists link fog to the state 
humans must pass through before enlightenment, like the mental 
fog that precedes clarity of thought.

 The steeds of Valkyrie
In Greek mythology clouds represented the flocks of the god Apollo.
In Nordic legend, however, they are the steeds of the Valkyrie, the god
Odin’s handmaidens who hovered over battlefields, escorting the slain
to Valhalla (Paradise).

 Divine presence 
Their heavenly associations
have symbolically linked clouds 
to divine presence; in Christian
iconography God is often
shown as a hand emerging 
from a cloud.

 Greek wind gods
In Greek myth Aeolus, chief god 
of the directional winds, kept
the winds in a cave and ruled
over the four gods. Often shown 
as winged men with puffed
cheeks, each wind brought
different weather conditions, 
from light spring breezes to cold
winter winds.

SEE ALSO
Fertility & childbirth 

pp.120–23
Celtic & Nordic deities 

pp.142–43
Nature spirits pp.148–49
Creation stories pp.156–57
Christianity pp.176–79
Angels pp.188–89

ZEPHYRUS (WEST WIND) 

EURUS (EAST WIND) 

NOTUS (SOUTH WIND)

BOREAS (NORTH WIND)



All precipitation, whether it comes as rain, 

hail, snow, or dew, is associated with water

symbolism, and both life and death. It can

result in destruction or generation. As rain, 

it represents fertility, while dew signifies a

blessing. As ice and snow, its links with cold 

and impermanence are reflected in folklore

RAIN & SNOW

Rain has always been an important symbol of 
fecundity and in certain primitive cultures it is 
linked with divine semen. It is also associated 
with purification. For thousands of years people 
believed that the sky gods determined whether 
to withhold rain, unleash it with terrifying force,
or release a gentle shower. Various rituals were 
carried out to invoke rainfall, and rain was 
associated with certain animals such as 
dragons, dogs, and 
even parrots.

  Torrential rain  
When cold, penetrating rain 
pours down in torrents, it can
bring misery and suffering as 
well as being a divine blessing. 
Heavy rain shares its symbolism 
with that of storms and the 
wrath of the gods.  Rain

dances
Different
interpretations of 
rain dances can be found in 
many cultures throughout the
world. The American Indian
Cherokee tribe, for example, 
performed rain dances to invoke
rain and to banish evil spirits. The stamping
of feet imitates the patter of rain on hard ground.

  Indra
The Hindu god of thunder, 
rain, fertility, and war, Indra, 
is often shown seated in his
heavenly court, Svarga, in the 
clouds wreathing sacred Mount
Meru. Indra is shown wielding
a thunderbolt in one hand, 
symbolizing enlightenment, 
destruction, and regeneration.

 Zeus and Danaë
This painting illustrates a story from Greek mythology in which Danaë,
the human mother of the hero, Perseus, is impregnated by the god, 
Zeus, in the form of a shower of coins. It is an erotic symbol of the
divine fertility of rain.

 Tlaloc 
Tlaloc is the Aztec god of 
rain and fertility. He was 
often depicted wearing a
crown of heron feathers,
symbolic of the waters,
carrying a rattle to create
thunder, and holding

brimming water pots.

  Dragon
In China dragons were associated with the weather and were thought 
to be rain-bringers; some of the country’s worst floods were attributed 
to humans upsetting a dragon. Chinese dragons were believed to
control water, vital for crops. In contrast, western dragons control fire.

and myth, while rainbows combine both 

solar and water symbolism. Due to its 

heavenly origin, precipitation is associated

with gods of the sky. Human survival 

depended on cooperation between gods and

humans, so that the weather’s unpredictable 

and often violent power could be controlled.



Not surprisingly, snow and ice symbolism 
is almost entirely associated with themes of 
coldness and hardness. There are also references 
to purity and white, pristine beauty. Emotionally, 
snow and ice are linked with rigidity, frigidity, 
brittleness, impermanence, and a general 
absence of love; expressions such as “icily polite” 
are widely used. In contrast, melting ice 
represents a hard heart softening.

Elusive, ethereal, and transient, the rainbow has a wide range 
of symbolic meanings. It has been seen as a sign of hope, peace, 
and divine covenant, an omen of war, an object of worship, and 
even fear. Rainbow legends and customs are widespread. The rainbow 
is a bridge to the heavens and wisdom is said to lie at its end.

 Snow queen  
This western fairytale symbolizes the triumph of 
good over evil. It tells the tale of two children who
are parted when the Snow Queen kidnaps the boy,
and how the girl risks everything to rescue him.

  Glacier
As a huge mass of perennial land
ice that moves forward under its 
own weight, a glacier is symbolic 
of slow, relentless change. In
common with ice, it is also
associated with the polluted
waters of Earth rather than the
fresh waters of Paradise.

  Navajo rainbow  
The rainbow on the Navajo flag
symbolizes sovereignty and the 
joining together of all the tribes
into the Rainbow Nation. The
copper outline represents their
borders and the jagged shapes
the sacred mountains.

 Crock of gold  
In Irish folklore the leprechaun 
stores a pot of gold at the end
of the rainbow; in the West the 
end of the rainbow is linked to 
finding one’s fortune.

  Noah’s rainbow covenant
After the biblical Flood, when 

God had safely delivered 
Noah and his ark, He 

sent a rainbow as a 
sign of His promise 

not to destroy
humanity.

 Kahukura 
The Maori rainbow god, Kahukura, is invoked in war. It is also a

  Rainbow serpent 
The rainbow serpent of 
Australian Aboriginal myth is
linked to seasonal shifts and 
human reliance on water. The 
monstrous serpent inhabits 
the permanent water holes and 
therefore controls life’s most 
precious resource.

  Rainbow body
In Tibetan tantric Buddhism the 
rainbow body is the transitional
state of enlightenment in which 
the practitioner’s body literally
disappears and is transformed
into pure light. This usually 
happens after death.

 Iris 
Goddess of the rainbow and
messenger of the Olympian 
gods, Iris is often portrayed as
a young woman with golden
wings and a herald’s rod. The 
rainbow represents her path 
between Earth and Heaven.

 Snowflakes
The fragile beauty of the snowflake is symbolic 
of impermanence, wisdom, truth, hardness, and
purity. It also represents individuality because no 
two snowflakes are alike.

SEE ALSO
Mammals pp.52–55
Dragons pp.78–79 
Greek & Roman deities

pp.140–41
Meso- & South American

deities pp.144–45

The Dreaming pp.152–53
Hinduism pp.158–63
Buddhism pp.164–69
Fairy tales pp.272–73
Flags pp.324–29



  Noah’s Ark
The biblical story of Noah describes 
the Flood as God’s punishment for
human sin. Noah, a devout man, 
was instructed by God to build an
ark, which ultimately survived, and
he and his family went on toe
repopulate the world.



Symbolically, floods represent death and 
regeneration – the end of one cycle and the 
beginning of another. They are associated 
with the lunar powers of the waters, fertility, 
and new life. They also have links with the 
washing away of sin and the purification 
of humanity.

Global flood stories are common to almost 
every civilization around the world, from 
China and Russia to Sumatra and Peru. 
In general terms, they represent the chaos 
that results when humans are out of harmony 
with nature and the gods.

Many are similar to the famous biblical 
flood story about Noah’s ark: they include 
themes such as divine retribution, advance 
warning of a flood, the building of a boat to 
house family and animals, and the release of 
birds to determine whether the flood waters 
had receded. The stories of Matsya in the Purana scripturesa
of Hinduism, and Utnapishtim in the Babylonian Epic of 

Gilgamesh are the most familiar 
of these myths.

Theories abound about the 
origins of the biblical flood 
story. However, it may have 
originated in Mesopotamia 

(now southern Iraq) where the Tigris and 
Euphrates rivers join. This fertile region is
prone to severe flooding, and geological 
evidence indicates floods may have caused 
significant disruption of several human 
settlements. To ancient cultures, a flood that 
swamped them would have appeared global, 
and spawned explanatory myths. 

Areas where ancient cultures benefited from 
annual flooding, such as the Amazon and the 
Nile, do not have apocalyptical flood stories. 
In Egypt the annual Nile floods made the 
surrounding land extremely fertile, providing 
food for the people. The floods were so 
significant that they created a god, Hapi, 
a positive figure who, together with the 
pharaoh, was believed to control the rise and 
fall of the water, bringing fertility to the 
region. Without the use of the Nile’s waters 

for irrigation, Egypt’s civilization would probably never have
developed in the sophisticated way that it did.

SEE ALSO
Water pp.32–33
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23 
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Hinduism pp.158–63
Christianity pp.176–79

The story of a Great Flood sent by God, or the gods, to destroy 

civilization in an act of divine retribution is a widespread theme 

in mythology from cultures around the world.

FLOODS

 Nile inundation
The Nile attracted valuable 
game and this 2nd-century BCE
detail of a Nile mosaic shows a 
rhinocerous stranded on a rock 
during the annual flood. 

 Aztec creator god  
Meso-American beliefs include world cycles, 
each destroyed by natural disasters such as
floods. Aztec weather and creator god, 
Quetzalcoatl, repopulated the world after 
one such event.

  Matsya myth
In this Hindu myth, Manu saved Vishnu in the
form of fish called Matsya, which later warned 
him of a coming flood; Manu built a boat,
survived, and re-established life on Earth.



The seasons are universally seen as symbols

of birth, growth, death, and rebirth, and 

therefore the passing of time. Humans have

always reckoned time by the Sun and the

lunar cycle, so the Sun and Moon feature in

seasonal symbolism. Each season has its 

associated gods, animals, colours, and even 

emotions. In some cultures the seasons are

symbolized by specific flowers, such as

China’s autumnal chrysanthemums.

THE SEASONS

Fresh, verdant, and full of promise, 
spring represents rebirth and new 
life. Essentially it is nature unfolding. 
Baby animals, children, young 
women, and flowers are all recurring 
symbols of the season, signifying 
spring’s youth, beauty, and heart-
breaking brevity. In China and 
Japan the cherry blossom is an 
important seasonal symbol. In 
Celtic mythology the Green Man is 
connected with spring regeneration. 

Summer is the season of ripening
maturity, when the Sun is at its
height. The Classical world
associated summer with the Greek
god, Apollo, and goddess Demeter
(known to the Romans as Ceres).
Its animals were the golden lion and
the dragon. In China summer is
symbolized by the lotus and peony.

  Allegory of spring
In western art spring is 
traditionally represented by
a beautiful young woman
(symbolic of fertility) crowned 
in seasonal flowers and set in
a soft, pastoral landscape. She 
may be seen accompanied by
young children.

  Spring lamb 
A symbol of springtime, the 
lamb represents Christ’s 
crucifixion and resurrection; 
this links it with Easter, which 
falls on the first Sunday after 
the first full Moon after the 
spring equinox.

  Flora 
In Roman mythology Flora was 
goddess of springtime and 
flowers. Her festival, the
Floralia, was held in April or 
early May and signified the
renewal of the cycle of life.

  Ceres
The Roman goddess of
agriculture and fertility,
Ceres, was credited with
teaching humans how to 
grow and use grain. She 
is often shown garlanded 
with corn ears and
holding a basket of fruit.

  Symbol of summer 
This Classical figure
represents summer, and
shows a woman crowned
in ears of corn, and carrying 
a sheaf of corn and a 
scythe. Grain symbolizes
rebirth, growth, and fertility.



HARVEST HARVEST FESTIVAL 
est thanksgiving festivals areHarvest thanksgiving festivals are common

arian societies Tto all agrarian societies. They unite the
unity in ritual at a timcommunity in ritual at a time when nature’s

d ancestbounty is celebrated and ancestors are
embered. Special food and dremembered. Special food and drink,

ed are consumed andusually harvest related are consumed and
tiespeople join in the festivities.

SEE ALSO
The Moon pp.18–19 
Mammals pp.52–55
Birds pp.58–61
Fertility & childbirth pp.120–23
Egyptian deities pp.138–39

Autumn is traditionally depicted as either a child or a woman bearing a 
baskets of grapes, which symbolize hospitality and the abundance of the 
season. The seasonal animal is the hare. In western art the cornucopia 
(horn of plenty), overflowing with fruit, flowers, and grain, is an ancient 
symbol of autumnal bounty; it has long-standing links with fertility.

Winter is the dead time when cold winds howl, many trees are leafless, and 
the Earth appears hard and barren. Many cultures have their own stories to 
explain the changing of the seasons. In Ancient Greek mythology 

phone was abducted and taken to the Underworld, 
ng which time the Ear
hing would grow. Eve
des forced her to retur
derworld for several m
every year when the E

became barren
again. This period 
became winter. 

  Duck 
The duck is associated with 
Isis, Egyptian goddess of the 
dead, and is also traditionally
linked with winter. The wild 
duck is also a popular winter
game bird.

  Winter personified 
This Ancient Roman statuette shows 
a traditional interpretation of winter
portrayed as an elderly man or woman, 
wrapped in a cloak to keep out the cold.
Often the figure is shown hunched over,
struggling against inclement weather.

 Boreas 
The bringer of the cold North 
Wind and winter, in Classical
mythology Boreas was feared 
due to his destructive potential. 
The
him and held a festival, 
Boreasmi, in his honour.

The Ancient Roman writer,
Pliny, said of salamanders,“This 
animal is so intensely cold as to 
extinguish fire ... as ice does.” 

 Hare 
The hare is a fertility symbol in
many cultures – hence its link 
to the bounty of autumn. In
Greco-Roman myth the hare
symbolizes the abundance of
the season; it also represents 
fertility in the autumn Chinese 
Moon festivals.

  Persephone
The goddess Persephone 
symbolizes the grain, which
comes up each year before 
returning to the Earth, in a
constant cycle of renewal.

 Bacchus  
The Greek god of wine and 
excess, Bacchus (also known 
as Dionysus), is associated with 
the celebrations of the autumn 
grape harvest.

  Dewi Sri
The annual rice
fefestival in Bali and

vJava is dedicated to 
gothe goddess Dewi S
weShe wears a crown a

mesometimes holds a l
bolizingsymbolizing resurrec

  C
A figure made by plaiting 
wheat, the corn dolly is
associated with Ancient
European harvest customs and
was used in Celtic fertility rites.

mooncake  Chinese mooncakes  
enMooncakes are eaten
stival to during a Chinese festival to 

elebrate the harvest. Theycelebrate the harvest. They 
may contain egg yolkmay contain egg yolks, a 
symbol of the Moosymbol of the Moon.

  Yaeyama dancer
On the Yaeyama islands 

tof Japan traditional 
edances are performed to 

ng about a successfbring about a successful
he danceharvest. The dances reflect
activities. Hereeveryday activities. Here

obbythe dancer rides a hobby-
to a mock batthorse into a mock battle.

Greek & Roman deities 
pp.140–41

Christianity pp.176–79



Precious and semi-precious stones flash with colou

light. The fact that they come from the Earth links

with divine energy as symbols of spiritual power a

purity; some were credited with powers of healing

and protection. They have been used for centuries

to signify status. Transparent stones are linked

with divination, while red ones indicate ardour

and vitality. Some stones are linked to birth 

months and some have their own associations.

PRECIOUS STONES

  Agate 
Ancient cultures believed that 
agate rendered the wearer
invisible. It represents courage, 
longevity, and prosperity; in
the past, agate stones were
tied to oxen horns to promote 
a good harvest.

  Topaz
Reputed to be an empathetic
stone, topaz symbolizes 
faithfulness, divine goodness,
friendship, forgiveness, and
love. Medicinally topaz was 
traditionally thought to banish 
nervous exhaustion and 
stimulate the appetite.

 Ruby 
This gem symbolizes love,
courage, and vitality. It has
been linked with Saturn and 
Mars, the planet of passions.
Royalty wore rubies as they
were thought to temporarily 
darken when danger approached.

 Bloodstone
Regarded as a healing stone,
bloodstone revitalizes 
relationships and purifies. It is
sometimes seen as a warrior
stone for overcoming obstacles
and giving courage. Bloodstone 
was used to combat blood 
disorders and stop bleeding. 

  Emerald
Its colour associates the
emerald with fertility, immortality,
spring, and youth. The Egyptians
buried an emerald with their
dead to represent eternal youth.
A Christian symbol of faith, 
emeralds also feature in folklore 
as a healing stone.

  Sapphire 
Sapphires are a symbol of 
celestial harmony, peace, and 
truth. In Hindu tradition they 
were associated with Saturn
and self-control. In some
quarters they were thought 
to ward off evil.

To the Chinese, jade is the Stone
of Heaven and represents purity.
A solar and Yang emblem, it
also symbolizes justice, courage, 
harmony, and moral purity. 
Considered lucky, smooth jade 
also has sexual connotations.

  Diamond
Symbolic of purity, truth, and
fidelity, the diamond is popular 
for engagement rings. Its 
radiance links it to the Sun. 
Diamonds are also believed to 
absorb the wearer’s emotions
and cleanse the soul.

 Dragon protection
This 14th-century carving from China shows a dragon protecting
hidden treasure. Traditionally, in Chinese culture, the Earth dragons
guarded precious objects and jewels buried deep in the Earth. Such 
hidden treasure symbolized knowledge or truth.



SEE ALSO
Dragons pp.78–79 
Love & marriage pp.126–27
Amulets pp.194–95
Royalty pp.216–17
Jewellery pp.254–55

 Opal
The opal symbolizes divine
insight, religious devotion, and
fidelity. The Romans thought 
that opals fell from Heaven in
a flash of lightning. Some 
cultures called the opal the 
“Eye Stone”, believing it 
watched over royalty.

  Amethyst
The amethyst is a protective 
and spiritual stone and 
amethyst rings are worn
by bishops in the Christian
Church. It is also thought to 
give peace of mind and protect
the wearer against drunkeness.

  Turquoise 
Long seen as a talisman against
evil, turquoise is symbolic of
courage, success, and
fulfilment. In Mexico it 
is a solar and fire symbol, 
and Tibetans regard it as
a holy gemstone.

 Cornelian
Revered for its healing,
spiritual, and creative qualities,
cornelian is closely bound to 
religious symbolism. The 
Prophet Muhammad’s seal
comprised engraved cornelian
set in a silver ring.

  Cat’s Eye
Also known as Tiger’s Eye,
this stone symbolizes insight
and mental clarity, and is
therefore associated with
meditation. It is thought to
invoke good luck and protect
the wearer against evil. 

 Lapis lazuli 
A blue stone with celestial
symbolism, lapis lazuli
represents power, wisdom, 
and inner strength. It was
believed to enhance psychic 
abilities and insight. It is also
a friendship stone.

  Onyx
Black stones are reputed to 
have protective energies. 
Onyx was traditionally worn 
to deflect negativity and
symbolizes heightened senses,
self-confidence, and spiritual 
strength. It is also linked with 
conjugal happiness and sincerity.

  Moonstone
With its pale iridescence, 
the moonstone has long been
associated with the Moon and 
lovers. Its links with fertility 
induced Arabian women to
sew them into their robes. 
Moonstones are also reputed
to balance menstrual cycles.

  Crystal 
Symbolic of purity, traditionally, 
crystals are important in magic
– hence crystal balls and
folk tales of magical crystal 
slippers. Their reputed ability 
to store and transmit energy
makes them a healing and
meditation tool.

A popular gemstone since 
the Bronze Age, the garnet is
protective, repelling negativity, 
guarding against depression, 
and inspiring courage. It is
also traditionally thought to
symbolize energy, devotion,
and fidelity.

  Aquamarine
The ancients believed that
the energy of the sea was 
contained within the 
aquamarine so sailors wore the 
stones to protect them in heavy
seas. Aquamarine is associated
with creativity, communication, 
self-awareness, and confidence.

 Inner radiance
Cut and faceted gemstones, such as this
topaz, reveal their inner beauty and
radiance. Symbolically, the process of
working the stone reflects the gradual 
perfection of the spirits and progress
towards divine wisdom, and represents 
the soul released from the base confines
of the human body.

  Peridot 
An emblem of fame, strength, 
and energy, the peridot is the
birthstone for those born in 
August. In Hawaiian mythology 
peridot represents the tears of
Pele, their volcano goddess.

 Tur  Turquoise necklace 
TurquoTurquoise (December) is

natraditionally associated 
with good luck and 
the promotion of 
friendship. Its 

ur isbright colour is also 
thought to enhance 
self-confidence.

BBIRTHSTONES
Certain stones are associated with different
months of the year and are thought to bring
luck or influence to those born in those

e semonths. The selection varies, but a popular
version is: Garnet (January); Amethyst
(February); A amarquamarine (March); Diamond
(April);pril); EEmerald (May); Moonstone (June);merald (May); Moonstone (June);

(July); PerRuby (July); Peridot (August); Sapphire
er);(September); OO alpal (OOctobectober); Topaz

(November); and Turquoise (December).



 The gilded idol 
The Adoration of the Golden Calf serves as a symbol of idolatry and
revolt against God. It relates to the Bible story in which the Israelites
worshipped a golden calf.



 Object of worship
Like the Mayans and Incas, 
the Aztecs worshipped gold and
reserved it for high-ranking people 
and ritualistic use. To the Aztecs, gold
represented the faeces of the Sun 
god, Huitzilopochtli.

Gold is the perfect metal: it has a brilliant 
sheen and is durable, malleable, and rust-
proof. Its glorious colour links it symbolically 
with the masculine Sun, perfection, and the 
heart. By association, it signifies the highest 
aspirations of the spirit, incorruptibility, 
and purity. 

Across the world gold has traditionally 
featured in the regalia of high office and 
monarchy. In the Inca empire new rulers were 
ceremonially covered in resin sprayed with 
gold dust, the historical origin of the mythical 
El Dorado (gilded man). Today gold is a 
symbol of the highest achievement or 
honour. Because of its qualities it has long 
had commercial value and has been used 
as currency and tribute since earliest times.

Gold is symbolically associated with various deities and 
religions. Jason’s quest for the Golden Fleece in Greek 
mythology represents a search for spiritual illumination. 
In Christianity gold is 
an ambivalent symbol 
that can represent 
corruption, as in the 
story of the golden calf 
(left), or divinity. During 
coronations Christian 
medieval kings were 

given a golden
crown, signifying
Heaven’s eternal light
and divinely inspired
authority. Divinity
is represented by the gilding on the icons of 
Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox Christianity
and the gold-leaf work in medieval art.

In both Buddhism and Christianity gold 
is a symbol of enlightenment. In Hindu
belief it is regarded as a mineral form of light,
a residue of the Sun itself. To the Egyptians
gold formed the flesh of the most powerful
of the gods, Re, known as the Mountain
of Gold.

The ancient art of attempting to turn base 
metal into gold evolved into an allegory of 
spiritual purification becoming the alchemical
Great Work. Chinese alchemists saw gold as
the essence of the heavens, the harmonious Yang.

American Indian Sioux called gold “the yellow metal that
makes the white man crazy”, and it has attracted a certain
level of negative symbolism. It was scorned in Communist
Russia, where the “class enemy” was symbolized by a gold 
pocketwatch, traditionally worn by those of higher rank.

Some cultures feared gold, believing it to have malignant
supernatural powers. Many traditional tales about gold serve
as a warning against greed and temptation. The famous Greek
myth about Midas, who came to regret asking the gods to
grant him the gift of turning everything he touched into gold,
is one such example.

SEE ALSO
The Sun pp.16–17 
Precious matter pp.46–47 
Egyptian deities pp.138–39
Buddhism pp.164–69 
Christianity pp.176–79

As lustrous and bright as the shining Sun, gold has excited

passions since earliest times. As a result it is a powerful symbol

of nobility, illumination, and sacredness.

GOLD

  Mark of enlightenment 
Images of the Buddha are often gilded as 
a sign of enlightenment. Gold is valued
for its purity and Buddhists earn merit by 
placing it on to sacred objects.

  Sign of excellence 
Universally recognized as 
a symbol of great human
achievement, gold is often 
awarded in the form of medals, 
such as this Olympic medal,
decorations, cups, and 
even entertainment awards.

Alchemy pp.210–11
Trappings of royalty pp.218–19
Jewellery pp.254–55
Colours pp.280–83



In ancient times precious metal was thought 

to be solidified cosmic energy: it represented 

an earthly object with celestial potential. This 

belief led to the development of a cosmic

hierarchy in which metals were paired with

the seven known planets. Precious metals

were also used both as sacred objects to

symbolize divinity and as tools and weapons.

Along with other precious commodities,

including amber and pearl, precious metals

were valued for their beauty and rarity and 

were often seen as status symbols.

PRECIOUS MATTERPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPPP

Johannes Vermeer, Girl with a Pearl Earring, c1665 66 

  Pearls
Pearls are among the gemstones embellishing
this 12th-century Byzantine crown, below.
Symbolizing royalty, justice, wisdom, and
purity, they were once exclusive to royalty. 
Representing perfection in Islamic and Hindu
philosophies, pearls have long been a status 
symbol and have adorned rulers throughout 
the world. 
  Johannes Vermeer’s portrait, Girl with a 

Pearl Earring, (right), perfectly illustrates this )
luminous symbol of purity. Much prized as a
sign of wealth, the pearl also represents the
Moon, femininity, and spiritual wisdom. To 
the Chinese, pearls symbolically combine
fire and water.



SEE ALSO
The Moon pp.18–19 
Death & mourning pp.128–31
Christianity pp.176–79
Amulets pp.194–95
Colours pp.280–83

  Je
An ancient fossilized wood, jet was
regarded as a talisman against illness.
It has been used as a treatment for 
migraines, stomach pains, and colds. 
Due to its colour, it was often used in
mourning jewellery in the West.

This incense burner is made of copper, which is associated with 
Venus and is a symbol of the female. In West Africa copper served 
as a status symbol, as well as an object of cult and magic. Copper 
is also linked with healing; even today people wear copper bracelets 
to combat arthritis.

durability. Many cultures 
regarded iron smelting as
spiritual, the forming of a
object through smelting l
to a symbolic birth.

 Mother-of-pearl 
Early societies valued mother-
of-pearl more highly than
actual pearls. Its iridescence 
symbolizes faith, charity, and 
innocence; it is also said to 
enhance focus. 

  C
Coral
symbolism due to its watery 
origins. The Ancient Greeks
linked it to rebirth; the Chinese
with status and luck; and 
Christians, with Christ’s blood.

  Ivory
Its colour links ivory with purity,
while its hardness signifies 
incorruptibility. The ivory tower 
represents the inaccessible; in 
Christianity, it symbolizes the 
Virgin Mary.

In alchemy lead represents 
the heavy, “sick” state of
human existence or the soul. I
is an attribute of Saturn, sette
of boundaries. As the base
metal it symbolizes the lowest
level from which spiritual 
development is possible.

The magnetic properties of
lodestone linked it with magic. 
Those who carried a lodestone
were said to be able to pass
safely among reptiles and see 
into the future.

  Amber
Actually a fossilized sap from 
prehistoric trees, amber was 
traditionally regarded as a talisman 
for travellers. To early Christians it
represented divine presence, while
in China amber symbolizes courage or 
the soul of the tiger. It was also used 
to combat ailments such as arthritis.

 Silver
This Byzantine cup is made 
silver, which is linked to the
Moon, Moon goddesses suc
Diana, and queens. It signifi
chastity, purity, wisdom, and
light of hope. In Ancient Egy
people thought that the god
were made of silver. Used a
it also symbolizes wealth.







F
rom soaring eagles to murky 
swamps, the natural world has fed 
our imagination ever since the first 
humans lived in caves. Literally and
symbolically, plants and animals 

have fundamentally influenced the way we
view the world. We have depended on both
for sustenance and have always co-existed
with animals, using them not just for food but 
also for clothing, labour, protection, and even
tools. Consequently, all aspects of their lives 
have been imbued with symbolic significance, 
from the snake shedding its skin (rebirth) to a
fish’s watery habitat (life and fertility).  

Animals – and even some plants – feature 
in creation stories, as ancestor figures, or are 
associated with gods, while earthly rulers used 

majestic species, such as the 
lion, to reflect their own

glory. A common belief 
was that animals’ highly 

tuned physical and sensory abilities associated
them with supernatural powers that could be 
harnessed through shamanistic ritual. Some
beliefs, such as birds being celestial messengers 
or souls, were so strongly held that they were 
incorporated into the major religions.

Animal species are infinitely varied and 
sometimes mirror our own behaviour. Like 
humans, some are feared or revered; others 
simply amuse us as clowns or tricksters.
Mythological hybrids and monsters were 
created, often representing complex 
psychological challenges; hence, “slaying the 
dragon” is a metaphor for good conquering
evil, or mastering one’s inner demons.

In common with animals, plants and trees 
are also a food source, which associates them 
with abundance, fertility, and the eternal cycle 
of life, death, and regeneration. Staple crops are 
especially important symbolically, and often
feature in creation myths. Other foods, such as 



tea and coffee, 
are connected to 
hospitality and 
ritual. Fruit – the 
culmination of a 
plant’s productive
powers – is associated
with immortality
because, although it 
has reached the end 
of one cycle, it 

contains the seeds for eternal renewal.
A vast number of plants are used in healing,

while others are hallucinogens, poisons, or
stimulants, which early societies regarded as 
magical, and which have a marked effect on
our mental and physical well-being. Many 
plants are also fragrant or colourful, giving
them an emotional resonance. The fleeting
beauty of flowers symbolizes the glory and
brevity of youth and there has also evolved 

a “language of flowers”, which survives today; 
red roses, for example, remain a widely 
recognized symbol of love and passion.

In common with other plant life, trees are
associated with fertility and the cycle of life, but 
their large size and longevity inspire additional
themes of shelter, permanence, and immortality. 
Many were worshipped and the vast cosmic
tree was thought to link Earth, Heaven, and the 
underworld; other sacred trees are usually
regionally significant, such as the life-sustaining
date palm in the Middle East. 

Most plant symbolism is positive but where 
nature appears “untamed”, as in woods and 
forests, psychological elements come into play 
that spawn a darker symbolism. As a dark and 
dangerous place in which one can easily get 
lost, the forest serves as a powerful metaphor
for the transition to adulthood. Even today, we
still try to find meaning in our world through
signs and symbols.

LITERALLY AND
SYMBOLICALLY,
PLANTS AND
ANIMALS HAVE 
FUNDAMENTALLY 
INFLUENCED THE
WAY WE VIEW 
THE WORLD



Fox
Smooth-talking, sly, and 
treacherous, the fox embodies

s of a trickster.
ter in American 

Eastern cultures,
ears in disguise
nd literature, too.

manistic traditions the bear 
d with medicine, healing, and
nerally, it symbolizes strength and
d is linked with warlike divinities. 

y
As a carrion-eater, the hyena is 
regarded as unclean, cowardly,
and greedy. Due to an early
belief that it could change
gender, it came to symbolize
sexual deviance.

Wolf
In Ancient Rome the wolf was a symbol of maternal care, courage, 

cunning cruelty

Jackal 
The scavenging jackal 
represents destructiveness
or evil in India, but in Ancient 
Egypt it was worshipped as
Anubis, who received the dead
on their way to the next world.
In the Old Testament the jackal 
is a symbol of desolation.

Racoon
A favourite in American Indian
folklore, the racoon is a trickst
and symbolizes mischief, dexte
and adaptability. Its mask-like
face represents an ability to
assume disguise.

Coyote 
In American Indian culture the wily 
coyote, shown here as a warrior’s mask, 
is seen as a tric
tea
bot
bet

Since earliest times the lives of humans and

animals have been intertwined, providing a 

rich source of symbolism. Animals have been 

worshipped as gods, linked with good

luck, and seen as sources of power an

wisdom. Many are symbolically assoc

with a human quality. Hunter-gatherers 

respected and sometimes revered animals as

being part of the natural world, which they

sacred. To access their instinctual

ecific animals were adopted as 

MAMMALS



ALSO
d trees pp.96–97 
ead pp.106–09 
ty & childbirth pp.120–23 
totems, heroes
cksters pp.150–51

Kan
An em
forwar
its cou
ability 
water a
energy
shama
represe
to the A
the kan
and a t

Cerberus 
AAs guardias guardian of the

way to the spgateway to the spirit
s, theworld, Cerberus, the

rthree-headed
watchdog of Greek
myth, symbolizes
guardianship of the 
secret secret knowledge of
death and resurrection. 

mbstoneTombstone
Many cultures regard dogs as 

hful companions, evefaithful companions, even in death. 
ey are often carved inThey are often carved in postures of 

bs.steadfast watchfulness on tombs.

Coat of arms
Depicted on a coat of arms,
the dog symbolizes courage,

evigilance, and loyalty. Commonly
featured breeds are
he greyhoundthe greyhound 

and mastiff.

Th
lin
an
de
tim
th
sy
hu

Mouse 
Although generally associated 
with timidity, Christians saw the
mouse as the Devil, gnawing at 
the roots of the Tree of Life.
Elsewhere, it is associated

rugality.

An important animal in 
American Indian myth, this
master builder signifies industry
and perseverance, as well as 
home and family. In Christian
symbolism the beaver
represents chastit

In the West the bat is linked 
with vampires, the devil, and
witchcraft. Seen as part bird,
part rat, it symbolizes duplicity. 
A i I di d it

Hedgehog
The hedgehog 
was an American
Indian symbol of
self-preservation.
However, Christians associated it with evil an
witches took on hedgehog form to suckle mil

ar symbol, the rabbit
ncient links with fertility 
birth. Its alertness,
, and timidity made it
stian symbol of vigilance,
g temptation.

In medieval times, the red
squirrel symbolized the devil
because of its alertness and 
colour. It was the emblem of 
Irish goddess, Medb.

Hare 
The hare is a trickster, hero, 
or fertility symbol associated 
with the Moon. In Europe
it was a witch’s companion; 
in the East, it was a previous
incarnation of the Buddha. 

Flying fox
In Samoan folklore the flying
fox, a fruit bat, is seen as a
guardian of the forest, while 
in New Guinea it is a head-
hunting symbol, often carved on 
war sh

a symbol of good luck and 
wealth. However, it is more 
commonly associated with 
death, decay, and destruction.

THE DOG
ce ancient times the dog has beenSince ancient times the dog has been seen as a 

companion animal symbolizing loyalty, protection, 
aand hunting. Early societies associated it with the 
spspirit world. African and American Indian cultures 
saw the dog saw the dog as a master of fire and a rain-maker. 
However, Muslims regaHowever, Muslims regard the dog as unclean and 

gatory term for ause it as a derogatory term for an unbeliever. 

The dreaming pp.152–53
Shamanism pp.154–55
Chinese horoscope pp.204–05



y
of prayer.

Goat 
A masculine symbol associated with lust and
fertility, the goat also represents agility; the 
climbing goat signifies determination. The goat
is linked to the Ancient Greek gods, Pan, 
Dionysus, and Zeus.

Cow
A symbol of maternal nourishment, the cow is seen
as a personification of Mother Earth. Both lunar
and astral, its crescent horns represent the Moon, 
and its milk the stars of the Milky Way. 
The cow is Hinduism’s most sacred animal.

Pig
The pig is associated with the Mother Goddess, 
representing fertility and prosperity, but is also 
associated with selfishness and ignorance. Jews 
and Muslims regard the pig as an unclean
scavenger. Christians link its gluttony to Satan.

Hippopotamus 
In Ancient Egypt, where it wallowed in the fertile
mud of the Nile, the hippopotamus symbolized 
rebirth and rejuvenation. Tawaret, goddess of
childbirth and protection, was shown as a pregnant
hippo, while the red hippo was associated with 
disharmony and the god, Seth.

Ox 
The ox, shown here being
ridden by Lao Tzu, the founder
of Taoism, represents toil, 
strength, and wealth. To 

Christians it is the yoke of 
Christ, while Buddhists see
the white ox as a symbol 
of contemplative wisdom.

Galloping horse 
Traditionally representing speed and vitality, the horse

iatinsymbolically gallops “as fast as the wind”, associating it with
en aelemental power and freedom; it is also seen as a messenger.

n, 
e,

s. ods. 
t

Cave art
The spotted horse appears in the 20,000-year-old cave paintings 
aat Pech Merle, France. An ancient symbol, the horse represents

ain, storm, fire, running wwind, rain, storm, fire, running water, and waves.

THE HORSE
A symbol of nobility, speed, freedom, and beauty, the horse is widely 
associated with conquering power, as represented by Classical equestrian 
statues. In the Ancient world the horse was an emblem of the life-force and 
was linked to Sun and sky gods. Different symbolism was attributed to 
white, black, or golden horses.

Pegasus
In common with the white 
horse, the winged horse is 
a solar or spiritual symbol. 

egasus was the legendPegasus was the legendary 
winged horse of Greek
mythology and often 
represents speed of thought. 



SEE ALSO
The night sky pp.20–23 
Fertility & childbirth

pp.120–23
Hinduism pp.158–63
Buddhism pp.164–69

Ram
A fire symbol and emblem 
of solar energy, the ram is 
associated with Sun and sky
gods and also masculine virility. 
The spiral of the ram’s horns
represents thunder.

Black sheep
Sheep symbolize meekness 
and, as part of a flock, require 
direction; the black sheep 
stands out as a non-conformist,
hence the expression describing
a maverick family member. 

Donkey
A donkey represents fertility,
lewdness, obstinacy, humility, 
and patience. In A Midsummer 
Night’s Dream Shakespearem
gave a comic character called 
Bottom a donkey’s head.

Wild ass
In the West the ass is a symbol
of stupidity and stubbornness,
but in the East it symbolizes
intelligence and strength. In
Egypt the desert ass represents
loneliness and isolation. 

Elephant
Long associated with sovereign 
power in Africa and Asia, the 
elephant symbolizes strength,
stability, and wisdom. Th
elephan
is worsh

Lamb
The lamb is a universal symbol
of innocence, gentleness, and
meeknes