Grammar and Vocabulary for Advanced

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Самоучитель по основам теории цепей Попов В.П., Семенцов В.И. Language: russian File: PDF, 14.50 MB

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Introductory Maths for Chemists. Chemistry Maths 1 Parker J.E. Language: english File: PDF, 6.22 MB

c CAMBRIDGE

p

UNIVERSITY PRESS

ENGLISH
+ CAMBRIDGE
Language Assessment
Part of the University of Cambridge

Cambridge English

Grammar,.
Vocabulary
mRADVANCED

MARTIN HEWINGS
SIMON HAINES

with answers

Downloadable Audio and Online resources
Go to www.cambridge.org/grammarvocabadvanced
to download complete audio for the book to your computer
or device, and access additional resources,

CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE ENGLISH
Language Assessment

Part of the Umverstty of Cambridge

Cambridge English

Grammar.
Vocabulary
mRADVANCED
with answers

MARTIN HEWINGS
SIMON HAINES

Cambridge University Press
vnvw.cambridge.orgielt
Cambridge English Language Assessment
wwwcambridgeenglish.org
Information on this title www.cambrkigeorg/97131107481114
@ Cambridge University Press 2015
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2015
Printed in Dubai by Oriental Press
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ISBN 978-1-107481114 Book with answers with Audio
Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/grammarvocabadvanced
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information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing but the
publishers do not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter.

II

Acknowledgements
Simon and Martin would like to thank the following people
at Cambridge University Press for all their assistance and
encouragement at various stages of the project: Charlotte
Adams, Aldona Gawlinski, Sharon McCann, Ann-Marie
Murphy, Lorraine Poulter and Chloe Szebrat, as well as the
editors Ruth Cox and Nik White.
Martin would also like to thank Ann for her constant support.
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following
sources of copyright material and are grateful for the
permissions panted. While every effort has been made, it
has not always been possible to identify the sources of all
the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any
omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to
include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting.

p. 78: Guardian News and Media Ltd for the adapted extract 'My
life as a human speed bump' by George Monbiot, The Guardian
23/10/2006. Copyright 0 Guardian News & Media Ltd 2006; p.
91: Telegraph Media Group Limited for the adapted extract from
Gadgets to make your home energy efficient' Comment, The
Telegraph 14/04/2007. ID Telegraph Media Group Limited 2007;
pp. 132-133: Telegraph Media Group Limited for the extract
from 'Alexander McCall Smith: Terrible Orchestra? by Alexander
McCall Smith, The Telegraph 01/11/2007. Telegraph Media
Group Limited 2007; p. 160: Nick Rennison for the extracts
from 'Waterstone's Guide to Popular Science Books edited
by Nick Rennison. The extracts from Waterstone's Guide to
Popular Science appear with the permission of the editor, Nick
Rennison. Published by Waterstone's Booksellers Ltd, Capital
Court, Capital Interchange Way, Brentford, Middlesex TW8
OEX (ISBN: 1-902603-20-60): pp. 182-183: Telegraph Media
Group Limited for the extract adapted from 'Rome ancient
life in a modern city' by Professor Mary Beard, The Telegraph
20/04/2012.0 Telegraph Media Group Limited 2012; p.186:
Ed Victor Ltd Literary Agency for the extract adapted from
'Speaking for Myself' by Joan Bakewell, The Author, Winter 2003;
p. 190: PlayShakespeare.com for the extract adapted from 'Law
Dares to be a great Hamlet' by Denise Battista, Playshakespeare
corn October 2009 http://www.playshakespeare.com/ hamlet/
theatre-reviews/3881-law-dares-to-be-a-great-hamlet
2014 PlayShakespeare.com. Used with permission. All rights
reserved; p.192: Peter Stalker for the adapted extract from
'Types of Migrant (Stalkers' Guide to International Migration)'
by Peter Stalker. With permission from Peter Stalker; p.198:
Text adapted from 'Five steps to risk assessment' Health and
Safety Executive website www.hse.gov.uk/risk/fivesteps.htm,
licensed under the Open Government Licence pp. 199-200:
Telegraph Media Group Limited for the adapted extract from
'Should cyclists be forced to wear helmets? by Matthew
Sparkes, The Telegraph 02/08/2013.0 Telegraph Media Group
Limited 2013; p. 205: Montessori for the adapted extract from
'What is Montessori; www.montessortorg @All Rights Reserved
Montessori St Nicholas; p.207: Professor Mitch Smooke for
the adapted extract from 'Mechanical Engineering' by Mitchell
D. Smooke, Yale School of Engineering and Applied Science.

With permission from Professor Mitch Smooke; p. 210: Anup
Shah for the adapted extract from 'Millions Die Each Year,
Needlessly' by Anup Shah, Global Issues. With permission from
Anup Shah, Global Issues www.gobalissuesorg/article/588/
global-health-overview, globalissues.org p. 226: wwvcindianchild.
tom for the adapted extract from 'The role of grandparents in
children's upbringing' by M. Hemdev IndianChild.com. 0 www.
indianchild.com; p.235: Thomas Baekdal for the adapted extract
from 'Where is everyone?' by Thomas Baekdal, www.baekdal.
corn 27/04/2009. http://www.baekdalcom/media/market-ofinformation; p. 244: Extract adapted from 'Low holiday spending
due to economic worries' by Martha C. White, www.dailyfinance
corn 05/11/2009; p.245: newbusiness.co.uk for the adapted
extract from 'How to grow your start up' www.newbusiness.
co.uk 17/08/2010. Copyright 2000 - 2013 newbusinessoo.uk
All rights reserved; p.261: Engineering and Technology for the
adapted extract 'Batteries are putting the brakes on electric car
take-up' The Guardian 14/06/2010,0 Institution of Engineering
and Technology.
The authors and publishers acknowledge the following
sources of copyright material and are grateful for the
permissions granted. While every effort has been made, it
has not always been possible to identify the sources of all
the material used, or to trace all copyright holders. If any
omissions are brought to our notice, we will be happy to
include the appropriate acknowledgements on reprinting.
Key: T = Top, M= Middle, 13 = Below, L = Left, R = Right,
B/G = Background
p.10 (TL): Getty Images/ID Dragonlmages; p.10 (TM): Alamy/0
DBURKE; p.10 (TR): Getty Images/ID Minerva Studio; p.25
(L): Alamy/0 Greg Balfour Evans; p. 25 (R): Shutterstockfie
CBCK; p.39: Getty Images/0 /GI/Jamie Grill; p.54 (a): Corbis/0
Maurizio Rellini/SOPA RF/SOPA; p.54 (b): Superstock/0 Axiom
Phtotographic/Design Pies; p. 54 (c): Getty Images/Kr Amulf
Husmo; p. 66: Getty Images/0 Fuse p.72: ShutterstockAD
Gargonia; p.80 (a): Alamy/0 Andrzej Tokarski; p. 80 (b): Sam
Hallas; p.80 (c): Alamy/0 ClassicStock; p. 80 (d): Alamy/e
The Print Collector; p. 80 (e): Corbis/0 DX Limited; p. 100 (a):
Alamy/ID RIA Novosti; p. 100(b): FLPA/0 Bemd Rohrschneider;
p.100 (c): AlarnyfiD Adrian Sherratt; p.119: Alamy/4" Alvey &
Towers Picture Library,. p. 154(L): Rex Features/0 KeystoneUSAZUMA; p. 154 (R): Alamy/0 Hemis; p.179: Shutterstockfib
donsimon; p. 186: Rex Features/0 David Hartley; p. 193 (BL):
Corbis/0 Jose Fuste Raga; p.193 (BR): Alamy/0 Ange; p.202: Rex
Features/0 Afle p.214: Getty Images/0 Jordan Siemens; p.231:
Getty Images/0 Yuri Arcurs; p. 248: Getty Images/0 Miroslaw
Kijewski; p. 260: Alamy/0 motorlife.
Illustrations: Clive Goodyer
Typeset by Blooberry Design Ltd
Text permissions clearance by Sarah Deakin
Picture research by Kevin Brown
Audio produced by Leon Chambers and recorded at
dSound. London

3

II Contents
Introduction
Exam summary

6

Map of the book

8

GRAMMAR SECTION
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5

Tenses
The future
Modals (1)
Modals (2)
Nouns, agreement and
articles
Unit 6 Determiners and quantifiers
Unit 7 Adverbs and adjectives
Unit 8 Comparison
Unit 9 Verb patterns (1)
Unit 10 Verb patterns (2)
Unit 11 Relative clauses (1)
Unit 12 Relative clauses (2)
Unit 13 Adverbial clauses
Unit 14 Conditionals
Unit 15 Participle, to-infinitive and
reduced clauses
Unit 16 Noun clauses
Unit 17 Conjunctions and connectors
Unit 18 The passive
Unit 19 Reporting
Unit 20 Substitution and ellipsis
Unit 21 Word order and emphasis
Unit 22 Nominalisation
Unit 23 It and there
Unit 24 Complex prepositions and
prepositions after verbs
Unit 25 Prepositions after nouns and
adjectives

VOCABULARY SECTION

10
17
25
32
39
47
54
60
66
72
80
87
94
100
107
113
119
126
134
140
148
154
161
168
174

Unit 26 Cities
Unit 27 Personal history
Unit 28 The arts
Unit 29 Migrations
Unit 30 Risking it
Unit 31 Gender issues
Unit 32 Education
Unit 33 Health
Unit 34 Getting about
Unit 35 Moods
Unit 36 Fame and fortune
Unit 37 Relationships
Unit 38 'lime off
Unit 39 Media
Unit 40 The world of work
Unit 41 Economics and business
Unit 42 The living world
Unit 43 Personal contact
Unit 44 The environment
Unit 45 Science and technology
Answer key

179
184
188
192
196
201
205
210
214
218
222
226
230
235
239
243
247
251
255
259
263

Introduction
II

What does the book contain?
This book is updated for the new Cambridge English:
Advanced examination introduced in 2015 and contains
two sections: Grammar (Units 1-25) and Vocabulary
(Units 26-45).

What does the book aim to do?
This book aims to provide complete coverage of the
grammar and vocabulary needed for success in the
Cambridge English: Advanced, also known as the Certificate
in Advanced English (CAE). Regular exam practice is
provided throughout the book.
Units 1-25 present grammar in context followed by a
detailed analysis of the language for advanced learners
of English. Units 26-45 extend vocabulary knowledge including of collocations and idioms - and introduce ways
of studying vocabulary which will help you pass the exam.

Who is the book aimed at?
This book is for anyone preparing for success in the
Cambridge English: Advanced. It is designed primarily for
students working alone who want to revise, extend and
practise their knowledge and understanding of grammar
and vocabulary, but it can also be used on a Cambridge
English: Advanced preparation course in the classroom, or
can be set as homework by a teacher.

How do I use the book?
You can work through the units in any order, but we
advise you to study every unit if you want to prepare
thoroughly for the exam. It is best to work through a unit
from beginning to end, as exercises may revise grammar
or vocabulary from an earlier part of the same unit.
Each of the 25 units in the Grammar section is divided
into three sections. Context listening introduces the
grammar of the unit in context to help you understand it
more easily. Grammar provides detailed explanations of
specific grammar points and includes Start points which
act as a brief reminder of grammar you may already know.
Grammar exercises provide practice of the grammar of
each unit.
Each of the 20 units in the Vocabulary section is bawd on
a general topic (e.g. Cities) and presents general exercises
on vocabulary for two areas within the main unit topic
(e.g. Urban growth and Urban living).

Each unit of the book includes an Exam practice section
which provides practice of the types of tasks you will face
in the Reading and Use of English, Writing and Listening
sections of the Cambridge English: Advanced examination.
Note Some of the Exam practice tasks test mainly the
grammar or vocabulary taught in the same unit, to give
extra practice. However, in the real exam each question
tests a different grammar/vocabulary point or a different
aspect of language.
The Answer key contains answers to all the exercises in
the book, including alternative answers where more than
one correct answer is possible.

What does this s mbol mean?
This symbol appears in the Error warning boxes of the
Vocabulary section and indicates that the errors were
found in the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a database made
up of many thousands of exam scripts written by students
taking Cambridge English exams around the world. The
exam practice tasks have been informed by the English
Vocabulary Profile. The English Vocabulary Profile is an
online resource with detailed and up-to-date information
about the words, phrases, phrasal verbs and idioms
that learners of English know at each of the six levels of
the Common European Framework (Al to C2), which
guarantees suitable treatment of words, phrases and
phrasal verbs at Cl level.

When should I use a dictiona ? L
To get the most out of the Vocabulary section, you will
need a good dictionary. Use the Cambridge Advanced
Learner's Dictionary or another suitable monolingual
dictionary. You should try to do each vocabulary exercise
without a dictionary first, then use your dictionary to help
you with answers you didn't know. Use the Answer key as
a final check. When you see the dictionary symbol, you are
advised to use a dictionary to complete the exercise. I

What material can I find online?
The following material for use with this book can be found
online at www.cambridge.org/grammarvocabadvanced:
Audio recordings for all listening exercises and for
exam practice Listening tasks
Complete Recording scripts for each audio file
Reference notes which give further information and
support on the grammar and vocabulary in this book
Wordlists for key items in the Vocabulary section
Model answers to the Exam practice Writing tasks
Parts 1 and 2

5

Exam summary
II

Willi WigIllijill

Reading and Use of English (1 hour 30 minutes)
Part

2

1
•
11111tilhildr

What are the tasks?

What do I have to do?

Multiple-choice doze

You read a text with eight gaps. For each gap you choose the
correct word from one of four possible answers (A, B, C or D).

Open doze

How many
questions?

You read a text with eight gaps. You must write one word in each
881).

8

8

Word formation

You read a text with eight gaps. For each gap you write the
correct form of the word at the end of each line.

8

Key word
transformation

You are given a complete sentence and a second gapped
sentence. You complete the second sentence so that it has the
same meaning using a given 'key word.

6

Multiple choice

You read a text and answer six multiple-choice questions.
You choose from four possible answers (A, 8, C or D).

6

Cross-text multiple
matching

You read four short texts on the same topic. You have to match
each question to the correct text.

4

7

Gapped text

You read a text from which paragraphs have been removed and
put in a jumbled order. You have to choose which paragraph fits
into which space. There is a paragraph which does not fit into
any space.

6

8

Multiple matching

You scan a text or several short texts and decide which part of a
text or text each question refers to. Some questions may refer to
more than one part of a text or text,

10

3

5

rip* woo
:

Writing (1 hour 30 minutes)
Part

•
IIIII
IILIIPOIIIL

What are the tasks?

What do I have to do?

1

Write an essay

You plan and write an essay on the topic given in the question
paper. Your essay must be 220-260 words.

2

Write a text of a
particular type

You choose, plan and write only one of the following possible text
types: a letter, a proposal, a report or a review. Your text must be
relevant to the situation described in the question. Your text must
be 220-260 words.

How many
questions?
1

1 from a
choice of 3

rilkii
i

Listening (40 minutes)

/111
4U7

10101.4
How many
questions?

What are the tasks?

What do I have to do?

1

Multiple choice

You hear three short extracts and have to answer two multiplechoice questions on each extract. For each question you choose
one of three possible answers (A, B or C).

6

2

Sentence completion

You use information you hear to complete sentences with gaps.

8

3

Multiple choice

You hear a recording with six multiple-choice questions. For each
question you choose one of four possible answers (A, EI, C or D).

6

4

Multiple matching

Part
1

You hear five short themed monologues with multiple-matching
questions. You match a statement or opinion from a list of six

10

options for each speaker.

Speaking (15 minutes)
Part

1*1t

What an the tasks?

What do I have to do?

1

General conversation

You answer questions about general topics such as your daily life,
your interests or your experiences.

2

Individual long turn

How long is
each part?
I

You talk about a set of three pictures on your own for around a
minute. Then you listen to your partner talk about a different set

2 minutes

4 minutes

of pictures before commenting on what they have said.
3

Discussion

4

Discussion

You and your partner are given some written instructions for a
discussion task
You and your partner discuss topics related to the task in Part 3.

4 minutes
5 minutes

7

Map of the book
10.411
1111

GRAMMAR
Unit

8

Title

Topics

Exam practice

1

Tenses

Simple and continuous tenses; perfect tenses; present perfect continuous and
past perfect continuous

Reading and Use
of English Part 2

2

The future

Will, be going to + infinitive, shall; present tenses for the future; future
continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous; be to + infinitive;
future in the past

Reading and Use
of English Part 8

3

Modals (1)

Ability; possibility; conclusions, willingness, habitual events; necessity.
deduction; 'not necessary'; obligation

Listening Part 1

4

Modals (2)

Complex modal forms; dare and need; had better; be allowed to; be supposed to;
other verbs with modal meanings

Reading and Use
of English Part 4

5

Nouns, agreement
and articles

Compound nouns and noun phrases; subject—verb agreement; countable and
uncountable nouns; articles

Reading and Use
of English Parr 2

Determiners and
quantifiers

No, none, flora, not any; much, many, a lot of, lots of; all, both, whole; every, each;
(a/the) few, little; less, fewer (than); much, many, etc. t (of)

7

Adverbs and
adjectives

Position of adverbs; quite, rather, already, yet, still, even, only, malls position of
adjectives; gradable adjectives; patterns after adjectives

Reading and Use
of English Part 3

8

Comparison

Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs; comparisons with
as ...; comparisons with so ..., too ..., enough

Reading and Use
of English Part 3

9

Verb patterns (1)

Verbs with two objects; verb + object + adjective; verb + reflexive pronoun; verb Reading and Use
+ each other/one another
of English Part 4

10

Verb patterns (2)

Verb + to-infinitive / -ing, verb + (object) + bare infinitive; verb + object + toinfinitive / -ing verb + object / possessive + -ing other patterns after verbs

Reading and Use
of English Part S

11

Relative clauses (1)

Defining and non-defining relative clauses; relative pronouns; other words
beginning relative clauses; prepositions in relative clauses

Reading and Use
of English Part 1

12

Relative clauses (2)

Participle clauses; to-infinitive clauses; adjective phrases; prepositional phrases

o
Ref a d in g a npda rUt sse
English

13

Adverbial clauses

Adverbial clauses including time clauses, contrast and concession clauses, reason Reading and Use
clauses, purpose and result clauses
of English Part 2

14

Conditionals

Real and unreal conditionals; if ... not and unless; even
and wish; other conditional expressions

15

Participle, toinfinitive and
reduced clauses

Participle clauses including present participle (-ing) clauses, past participle
(-ed) clauses, participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions, to-infinitive
clauses, reduced clauses

Reading and Use
of English Part 3

16

Noun clauses

That-noun clauses; wh-noun clauses; whether and ]

Reading and Use
of English Part 1

17

Conjunctions and
connectors

Before, hardly, first (1y), however, even so, on the other hand, etc.

Reading and Use
of English Part 6

18

The passive

Using the passive; active and passive verb forms; passive forms of verbs with two Reading and Use
objects; get + past participle; get/have + object + past participle
of English Part 7

19

Reporting

Structures in the reported clause that-clause, to-infinitive and -ing verb tenses in
reporting modal verbs in reporting reporting questions; should in that- clauses

.
.
Listening Part 4

20

Substitution and
ellipsis

One/ones; so + auxiliary verb + subject; neither, nor, not.., either; do so; leaving
out words after auxiliary verbs and after to

Listening Part 3

21

Word order and
emphasis

Fronting cleft sentences; inversion; inversion in conditional sentences

Reading and Use
of English Part 4

22

Nominalisation

Nominalised forms; do, give, have, make, take + noun

Reading and Use
of English Part 8

23

It and there

Introductory it as subject and object; there; common expressions with it's no ...
and there's no ...

Reading and Use

and even though; if only

istening Part 2

Listening Part 4

of English Part 4

4

,
25

Complex
prepositions and
prepositions after
verbs

Complex prepositions; verb + preposition: common patterns; phrasal verbs:
word order

Prepositions
after nouns and
adictiv

Noun + preposition: related verbs and adjectives; noun + preposition + -ing or
noun + preposition + noun; noun + of +-ing or noun + to-infinitive; noun + in or Reading and Use
of English Part 1
noun
aclective + preposition

ofi

VOCABULARY
Unit

1
Listening Part 1

ir.o.dikr.Zb
a _ Sall
—dik

Title

Topics

Exam practice

26

Cities

Urban growth
Urban living

Reading and Use
of English Pans

27

Personal history

Ancestry
Autobiography

Writing Part 1
An essay

28

The arts

Arts events
Reviews

Reading and Use
of English Part 1

29

Migrations

Departures
Personal stories

Listening Part 2

30

Risking k

Extreme sports
Risk-taking

Reading and Use
of English Part?

31

Gender issues

Language
Gender in sport

Reading and Use
of English Part 4

32

Education

Learning
l'iai
lin

Reading and Use
of English Part 6

33

Health

World health
Water and health

Writing Part 2
A report

34

Getting about

Private journeys
Public transport

Listening Part 1

35

Moods

Attitudes
Memory

Reading and Use
of English Part 1

36

Fame and fortune

Celebrity culture
Reality television

Reading and Use
of English Part 2

37

Relationships

Families
Friends

Listening Part 3

38

Time off

Holidays
Enjoying exercise

Finding and Use
of English Parts

39

Media

News and information
Press freedom

Reading and Use
of English Part 4

40

The world of work

Employment patterns
Economic migration

Reading and Use
of English Part 3

41

Economics and
business

Economic problems
Business tips

Writing Part 1
An essay

42

The living world

Animal life
Trees and plants

Listening Part 4

43

Personal contact

Social networking
Letter writing

Reading and Use
of English Part?

44

The environment

Issues
Protection

Reading and Use
of English Part 3

45

Science and
technology

Discovery
Solutions

Writing Part 2
A letter

9

Tenses
Simple and continuous tenses; perfect tenses; present perfect
continuous and past perfect continuous
t.tv

Context listening
En You are going to hear part of a radio phone-in programme. Before you listen, look at the photos.
What do you think the topic of the phone-in is?

EIE Listen and check whether you were right. As you listen, answer the questions.
Which of the callers, Karen, Uam, Sahar or Lula ...
1 ... lost something on the train one day?

Salierr

2 ... travels to work by bus?
3 ... works at home permanently?
4 ... may buy a motorbike?
5 ... has always liked travelling by train?
6

... used to catch the train at a quarter past seven in the morning?

7

... is working at home temporarily?

8 ... has never owned a car?
Listen again and fill in the gaps.
1 I

coronae&

I

2

to London for over ten years.
over an hour when they announced that the train was cancelled.

3 1

of buying a motorbike.

4 1

at home while our office block is being renovated.

5 1

to her only a couple of times before then.

6 1

travelling by train ever since I was young.

7 1

to phone in to your programme for the last half hour.

8 Yesterday, 1

all my work by 2.30 pm.

1.4 Identify the tenses you used in 1.3.
1 - past simple

to

Tenses

Grammar
EU Simple and continuous tenses

START POINT
Present continuous
I'm working at home while our office block is being renovated. (= temporary state)
I'm phoning from the train. (= action in progress)
Present simple
Public transport has a number of advantages over driving. (= permanent state)
I catch the train at 7.05 at the station near my home every morning. (= habit or regular event)
Past continuous
Iwas travelling home when the train broke down. (= action in progress at past point)
Past simple
I sold my car last week. (= completed past action)
I drove to work for a couple of years. (= past situation that doesn't exist now)
I caught the train every morning at 7.15. (= repeated past action)
We usually use simple tenses with verbs that describe an unchanging state rather than an action:
I love trains.
We can use continuous tenses with state verbs to suggest that a situation is temporary or untypical:
I'm appreciating being able to get up later than usual (= suggests a temporary arrangement)
Now that I work at home I appreciate being able to get up late. (= suggests a more permanent arrangement)
With some verbs that describe mental states (e.g. consider, understand) and attitudes (e.g. hope, regret),
continuous tenses suggest a process going on at the time of speaking, or emphasise that the process continues
to develop:
I'm regretting selling my car already. (= suggests that I have started to regret it and that this regret may grow)
I regret selling my car. (= describes an attitude that is unlikely to change)
Some verbs have different meanings when talking about states and describing actions:
I'm now thinking of buying a motorbike. (think of (action) = consider)
Do you think that's a good idea? (think (state) = asking about an opinion)
We usually use the present simple with verbs that describe what we are doing as we speak:
I admit that it can be frustrating at times. (= I agree that it is true when I say 'I admit')
I predict that increasing numbers of people will start working at home.
We often use the past simple in a narrative (e.g. a report or a story) to talk about a single completed past action,
and the past continuous to describe the situation that existed at the time:
I dropped my purse while I was getting off the train.
When we talk about two or more past completed actions that followed one another, we use the past simple
for both:
She woke me up and offered me a lift.
When we talk about two actions that went on over the same period of past time, we can often use the past
continuous or the past simple for both:
I was listening to music while I was driving here. Or I listened to music while I drove here.
We can use continuous tenses with the adverbs always, constantly, continually and forever to emphasise that
something is typical of a person, group or thing because they do it so often:
I was forever arriving late for work

II

1

Tenses

We can use either the present continuous or present simple to describe something we regularly do at a
certain time.
At 8 o'clock Pm usually having a leisurely breakfast. or At 8 o'clock I usually have ...
We often use the present continuous or past continuous:
to make an enquiry or a statement less certain because we don't know if we're right:
I'm hoping we've got Dave Jones on the line. (= suggests that the speaker is not sure whether Dave Jones
is there)
to make a request or an offer more polite:
Karen, were you wanting to say something?

En Perfect tenses
Present perfect

I've lived in Spain, and the trains are so much more reliable there. (past situation relevant to the present)
I've just sold my car and so now Igo to work by bus. (recent action with consequences for the present) ,
I've enjoyed travelling by train ever since I was young. (situation continuing until the present)
Past perfect
This morning I'd read a couple of reports before I got off the train. (past event before another past event)
We use the present perfect to talk about a situation that existed in the past and still exists now, and the past
simple when the situation no longer exists:
I've commuted to London every weekday for over ten years, and I actually enjoy it.
I commuted to London every weekday for over ten years before I started working at home.
We use the present perfect to talk about a repeated action that might happen again:

I've arrived late for work twice this week so far
and the past simple for a repeated action that won't happen again:
I arrived late for work twice this week. (= the working week is over; I won't arrive late again this week)
When we give news or information, we often introduce a topic with the present perfect and then give details
with other past tenses:
The new high speed rail link between the north of England and the Channel Tunnel has opened.
It took 15 years to build and cost nearly ten billion pounds.
When we use a time expression (e.g. after, as soon as, before, when) to say that one event happened after
another, we can use either the past simple or past perfect for the first event:
I'd read a couple of reports before I even got to work or I read a couple of reports before I even got to work.

En Present perfect continuous and past perfect continuous
We use the present perfect continuous (have been + -ing) to talk about an action in progress in the past for a
period until now, and which is either still in progress or recently finished:
I've been working at home for the last five years. (= action still in progress)
Sorry I'm late. I've been trying to find a parking place. (= action recently finished)
We often prefer the present perfect continuous to say how long an action has been in progress:
I've been trying to phone in to your programmefor the last ha? hour.
We use the present perfect to talk about a completed action or series of actions when we are interested in
the result:
I've called the bus company a number of times to complain.
They've bought new trains and have really improved the service.

12

Tenses
We use the past perfect continuous (had been + -ing) to talk about an action in progress over a period up to a
particular past point in time

I'd been waiting over an hour when they announced that the train had been cancelled.
If we are not interested in how long the action went on, we often use the past continuous rather than the past
perfect continuous:

I was waiting on the platform when they announced that the train had been cancelled, rather than
I'd been waiting on the platform when ... (= there is no mention of how long the person was waiting.)
We use the past perfect when we say how many times something happened in a period up to a particular
past time

I'd spoken to her only a couple of times before then.
We don't usually use the present perfect continuous or the past perfect continuous to describe states:

I'd owned a car ever since I left college. (notPd-been-ewning )

Grammar exercises
ElliChoose the correct or more natural answer in this radio news report.
Emergency services were bombarded with phone calls from all over the north of the country last
night by people who (1) are reporting / reported seeing blue objects shoot across the sky. Mrs Sophia
Olsen (2) drove / was driving along the main mad at the time.
'1(3) 'm usually coming / usually came along that bit of road at about ten. As 1(4) was going I go

past the old barn, I(S) was seeing / saw a single bright blue light going across the mad in front of
my car. 1 (6) stopped / stop the car and (7) was watching / am watching it for about fifteen minutes.
It (8) was travelling / travels quite slowly from east to west and then it (9) 's suddenly disappearing
/ suddenly disappeared. Until now 1(10) wasn't believing / didn't believe in UFOs, although my son
(11) is forever trying/forever tries to persuade me that they (12) are existing / exist. But now I
(13) thought / 'm thinking that maybe he (14) was being / was right.'

Dr Maria Walker, a lecturer in astronomy at Trumpton University, (15) offers / is offering a simple
explanation. The reports that (16) were coming / come in last night (17) are suggesting / suggest
that it (18) was / is a meteor shower. This (19) is / was not unusual on a small scale, but last night's
shower (20) is seeming / seems to have been very large. In fact, we (21) were getting / are getting an
increasing number of meteor showers, and my department (22) is currently researching / currently
researches possible reasons for this.'
But many witnesses to the events (23) believe / are believing that they (24) are observing / were
observing more than a meteor shower, and that last night the Earth was actually visited by beings

from outer space.

13

1

Tenses

PEI Complete the sentences using the verbs in the box. Use the same verb in each pair of sentences. Use
the present simple, present continuous, past simple or past continuous.
attract expect imagine measure see think
1 a

b

I
'rn thinking
America.

k Why's Yusuf having a party?
think

B: I
2

a

about taking a gap year before I go to university and going travelling around South

it his birthday.

A: How did the cat get up into the tree?
B: I

b

he was chasing a bird.

k Let me know when the post arrives.
B: Why,

3

a

you

k What happened to your wrist?
B: I

4

5

6

something important?

the window for some new curtains and I fell off the ladder.

b

I was given this pedometer for my birthday. You just hook it on your belt and it
far you walk during the day.

a

This month's special exhibition of South African art
museum, whereas we normally only get about 2,000.

b

As the home of William Shakespeare, Stratford

a

you

how

over 5,000 visitors a day to the

tourists from all over the world.

that big house over there? Its my uncle's.

b

I split up with Alex when I found out that he

a

I

b

The baby's smiling in her sleep. I wonder what things she

someone else.

Giulia's under a lot of stress at the moment with moving house and starting a new

in her dreams.

nilComplete the sentences with an appropriate form of the verb given. Use the past simple, present
perfect, past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses. Use each tense only once in each group of
four sentences.
1 play
a We

have played 35 matches so far this season, so we're all feeling pretty tired.

b After the match, she admitted that she
you
d Ireland
last December.

badly.
rugby or football at the school you went to?

really well all year, so it came as a big surprise when they were beaten by Wales

2 make
a

We

b

Henson never thought about retirement. In fact he
indigenous people of Chile when he died.

c

k When did you realise that you

the right decision in emigrating to Canada in the mid-1990s.

B: When I was posted to a boiling hot jungle.

14

a documentary film about the

a mistake in joining the army?

Tenses
d Korean scientists believe that they
a breakthrough in the fight against cancer by
developing a technique for containing the disease. They reported their findings at the AAL conference in
New York this week.
3 run
a Over the last year!

workshops on creative writing in twelve colleges and universities.

b She was breathing hard as if she
c

She

only two marathons before breaking the world record in the Pan-African Games.

d I was late for work so 1

most of the way.

3.4 Complete the sentences using either the present perfect or present perfect continuous form of the
verb given. Where both are possible, choose the more likely tense.
1 Alice has competed. (compete) in the Athens Marathon twice before, but hopes to achieve her best time
this year.
2 Income from manufacturing exports still provides the largest proportion of the country's export earnings,
but the proportion
(drop) for many years.
(belong) to the Beecham family for over 250 years, but the present owner,
3 The house
Donald Beecham, is selling it.
4 Melnik
early release.
5

(serve) a life sentence for murder since 1990, but his lawyers are arguing for an

k I'd like a career where I can travel and meet people.
B:

(consider) becoming a tour guide?

6 k

(swim)? You look really exhausted.

B: I am. I did 50 lengths of the pool.
7 k Did you manage to get in touch with Chloe?
B: No,1

(fry) three times in the last hour, but she's always engaged.

pri Choose the correct tense.
Good morning, Mr Nilsson. What can I do for you?
Well, doctor, (1) I've been gettiorg I I've got some really bad headaches.
Okay. Can you tell me exactly when these headaches (2) were starting / started?
Oh, yes, 1(3) have remembered / remember it vividly — it was on a Friday three weeks ago. (4) had been
working / worked in front of my computer all week because I(S) did / was doing a job for an important
client —(6) I was working / I've been working as a website designer for the last few years, you see. 1(7) had just
finished I had just been finishing when the pain started, and by the end of that day I(S) was feeling I have felt
really bad.
Okay. And how (9) have you slept I have you been sleeping?
Not very well, actually. Usually I'm asleep as soon as my head (10) hits / is hitting the pillow, but recently
(11) I've been having I I'm having difficulty getting to sleep.
I see. Now, (12) I'm noticing / I notice that you wear glasses. (13) Have you had / Were you having your eyes
tested recently?
No, 1(14) haven't had / didn't have them tested for a couple of years, I suppose.
A: Okay, what (15)1 suggest I I'm suggesting is that first you get your eyes tested. Then when you (16) are
working I have worked at your computer, take frequent breaks to rest your eyes. If that (17) hasn't solved I
doesn't solve the problem, come back and see me again.

15

Exam practice
II

Reading and Use of English Part 2
For questions 1 —8, read the text below and think of the word which best fits each gap. Use only one word in
each gap. There is an example at the beginning (0).
Planets beyond our solar system
Throughout history we have wondered about the possibility (0)

of

only in recent years, however, that advances in technology (1)
extrasolar planets (or 'exoplanets'); (2)
other stars in the universe. So (3)

life beyond the Earth. It is
revealed the existence of

is to say, planets which orbit not our own Sun, but
, astronomers have identified a few thousand exoplanets,

but believe that billions more exist.
Although many astronomers believe that a large number of planets in the universe are capable of
supporting (4)
(5)

kind of living organism, whether or not life has developed on any of them
not yet known. An essential requirement for life is liquid water. (6)

a planet is to have liquid water on its surface, its temperature must be (7)
cold. However, (8)

16

too hot nor too

a planet, other than the Earth, has yet to be discovered.

The future
Will, be going to + infinitive, shall; present tenses for the future;
future continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous;
be to + infinitte; future in the past

Context listening
niWhich of these activities would you like to do on a visit to the USA?

Ng OE Jessica is doing a course in American Studies at a British university. As part of this
programme she will spend her third year studying at a university in Los Angeles in California. Her friend,
Kelly, wants to visit her while she is there. Listen to them talking about their plans. Which of the activities
shown in 1.1 do they mention?

la CIE Listen again and fill in the gaps.
1 I 'm spending

a few days sightseeing in New York.

2

I

in Los Angeles on the 20th.
for my own place.

3

I

4

It

5

I

a long time to catch up.
up there if its not too expensive.

6

you stop over anywhere on the way out?

7

When I come to see you, you

8

You

1.4

in California for nearly six months.

longer, won't you?

How many different ways of referring to the future did you use in 1 3?
17

2

The future

Grammar
Pa Will, be going to + infinitive and shall

START POINT
Will
I think Ill fly directly to Los Angeles. (= a decision made without planning)
I'm sure you'll have a fantastic time. (= a prediction based on opinion or experience)
I'll be 21 on 2nd January. (= a fact about the future)
I'll meet you at the airport. (= willingness)
Be going to + infinitive
First I'm going to stay with Daniel and Susanna. (= a decision already made)
The clouds building up. It's going to rain this afternoon. (= a prediction based on outside evidence)
We can sometimes use will instead of be going to to make a prediction based on evidence, but when we do we
usually include an adverb:
The cloud's building up. It'll definitely rain / It's definitely going to rain this afternoon.
We can use will or be going to in the main clause of an if-sentence with little difference in meaning when we say
that something is conditional on something else
If I don't go now, Ill be / I'm going to be late for my next lecture.
We use will, not be going to, when the main clause refers to offers, requests, promises and ability:
If my plans change, I'll let you know, of course. (= promise)
If you bring your tent, well camp on the coast for a few days. (= ability; 'we will be able to camp')
In formal contexts, we can use shall instead of will with I or we:
in questions that ask about intentions:
Shall I/we see you before you leave? (= Will Uwe have the opportunity to see you?)
in statements about the future, although will is more usual:
When I finish my course I shall/will have some time to travel around America.
ENI Present continuous and present simple for the future

Present continuous
I'm spending a few days sightseeing (= event intended or arranged)
Present simple
Lectures start on nth July. (= event as part of an official schedule)
Compare the use of the present continuous for the future and be going to:
I'm flying on 15th July at ten in the evening. (= already arranged)
I'm going to fly up there if it's not too expensive. (= the speaker intends to fly but has not made the arrangements yet)
We tend to avoid be going to go and use the present continuous (be going to) instead:
Then I'm going to San Francisco. rather than Then I'm going to go to San Francisco.
We can't use the present continuous for future events which are not controlled by people:
It's going to rain this afternoon. (not It2s-rairning-this-aftemeem)

18

The future

2

We can use either the present simple or will to talk about formal arrangements made by, for example, a
university or company:
The semester begins on 7th December. or The semester will begin on 7th December.
The present continuous is used in informal arrangements:
You're not staying with them the whole time, then? (= informal arrangement) (not Y-reti-doWt-stay-with4hem4hewhok-kimertherg)
We use the present simple, or sometimes other present tenses, to refer to the future in time clauses with a
conjunction (e.g. after, as soon as, before, by the time, when, while, until); in conditional clauses with if, in case,
provided and unless; and in clauses beginning with suppose, supposing and what if
As soon as I book my tickets, I'll let you know. (not As-seen-as-Ewill-book ...)
It'll be good to know I can contact them in case I have any problems. (not ... in-ease4-wifl-keve ...)
What if I don't like it? (not What-ifli,venit-like-it4)

inFuture continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous
We use the future continuous (will + be + present participle) to talk about something predicted to happen at a
particular time or over a particular period in the future:
I'll be studying really hard during the semesters.
We use the future perfect (will + have + past participle) to make a prediction about an action we expect to be
completed by a particular time in the future:
By the time you come I'm sure I'll have got to know the city really well,
We use the future perfect continuous (will + have been + present participle) to emphasise the duration of an
activity in progress at a particular point in the future
When I come to see you, you'll have been living in California for nearly six months.
We can also use the future continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous to say what we believe or
imagine to be true
Dad won't be using his car, so I'm sure it's okay to borrow it. (= an activity happening now or at a particular point
in the future)
They'll have forgotten what I look like. (= an event that took place before now or before a particular point in
the future)
My plane's been delayed. Daniel and Susanna will have been waiting for me at the airport for hours. (= an activity
continuing to now)

2.4 Be to + infinitive
Be to + infinitive is commonly used:
in news reports:
Extra lifeguards are to be posted at the beach after a shark was seen close to the shore.
to talk about formal plans, and rules or instructions:
Students are to hand in project reports at the end of semester two. (active)
Project reports are to be handed in at the end of semester two. (passive)
We only use am I islare to + infinitive to talk about future events that people can control:
The weather will still be warm even in winter. (not The,weother-is-sbil-to-be-warm.)
We often use be to + infinitive in if-clauses when we mean In order to':
If she is to get a good grade in her project report, she needs to work on her statistics. (= in order to get a good
grade she needs to work on her statistics)

19

2

The future

Future in the past
A number of forms can be used to talk about a past activity or event that was still in the future from the point
of view of the speaker
was going to see an aunt in Seattle a couple of years ago, huts cancelled the trip because she got ill. (= a plan that
didn't happen)
I knew I would be feeling awful by the end of the flight. (= a prediction made in the past)

Grammar exercises
IBM Complete the sentences using the verbs in the box. Choose the most appropriate form.
miss / will miss

will have / am having

is going to melt / is melting

persuades / will persuade

will be enjoying / enjoys

affi-st-aft-ing-out-4-wilkt-ar-t-etif

will rise fare to rise

see / are going to see

1 Az Do you want to come out for a meal tonight?
B: I

sfartibg out early tomorrow morning - my flight's at six - so I don't think I'll come, thanks.

2 I

some friends over for dinner on Saturday. Do you want to join us?

3 They reckon the Greenland ice sheet

within a few years.

4 A: Yoshi doesn't want to come on holiday with us, then.

8: He says that now, but I'm sure Hannah
5 By the middle of the week temperatures

him to change his mind.
to 30°C.

6 I'm not sure when I'll be home tonight. Expect me when you

me.

7 A: The coach leaves Kiev at exactly 5.00 from the bus station.
B: What if I

it?

A: You'll have to take the train.
8 k It's Lucia's first week away at university. I wonder how she's getting on?
B: I'm sure she

herself.

Choose the correct future form.
1 You'll freeze if you'll go / go out dressed like that. Put on a warm coat!
2 When I retire next year, I'm doing / going to do a lot of travelling around South America.
3 Look at that stupid cyclist! He's going to cause / causes an accident.
4

A: What do you want done with this box?
B: If you just leave it there, I'll take I'm taking it upstairs when I go.

5

A: What are you doing / do you do this evening?
B: Oh, I don't know. Maybe I'll Slcype I'm Skyping Lydia.

6

20

Please note that next week's concert is commencing / will commence at 7.00, not 7.30 as advertised in
the programme.

The future

7

2

k Adele will do / is doing a concert in Milan next month.
B: Will! Shall I book some tickets?

8

When Stefan is / will be 50, Sofia is to be / will be 18.

Elgi Complete the sentences using a future form of the verbs given. Use the same future form for all three
sentences in each group. Use:
present-sir:tie
future perfect

future continuous
present continuous

be to + infinitive
future perfect continuous

be going to + infinitive

get go terminate

1.
a

All change, please — this train

ber701611%5

here.

b What time acles our Plane get (our plane) to Athens?
c

The cat runs away from me as soon as I

90

near it.

buy have need

2
a

A: What are you going to town for?
B: I

some new shoes.

b k Jane's not looking very well.

B: No, apparently, she

a major operation.

A: I've made a list of the things you

for the field trip to Iceland.

8: Thanks, that's really helpful.
negotiate watch work

3
a

On April 1st next year I

b

A: It's such a pity that Ella is away and can't watch the match with us. You know how much she loves

at the university for 25 years.

tennis.
B: I'm sure she
c

it on TV in her hotel room.

The next statement from the trade union leaders is expected at ten o'clock tonight. By that time they
with the employers for 36 hours.
conic do support

4

a Justin's not feeling well, so he
b Who

tonight after all.

(you) in the world cup final, France or Brazil?

c A: What do you think Lola

at the moment?

11: Oh, she'll still be in bed.
5

create launch leave
a

The computer firm Clarken

b

All mobile phones

c

The government
service.

300 new jobs at its assembly plant just outside Dublin.
outside the examination room.
an enquiry next week into allegations of corruption in the civil

21

2

The future

analyse have move
a

The bank predicts that by the end of next year, over 80% of its customers
banking.

b

Natasha

to online

her exam results by now. I wonder how she's got on.

My research is going rather slowly at the moment, but I'm certain by the end of the year all of my data

7 go have make
a She
b I
c We

22

a speech at the conference next week.
out there — it's pouring with rain and I haven't got an umbrella.
risotto for dinner. Is that okay with you?

Exam practice

The future

2

II

Reading and Use of English Part 8
You are going to read a magazine article in which five career consultants give advice on interview technique.
For questions 1 - 10, choose from the consultants (A - E). The consultants may be chosen more than once.

Which consultant makes the following statements?
Interviewers look for applicants with specific skills.
Try to make a good impression early in the interview.

2

Insufficient preparation by applicants is a common weakness.

3

Doing prior research helps distinguish you from other applicants.

4

Give yourself a moment to think about your answers to interviewers' questions.

5

You should be able to support your application with additional information at an interview.
Find out the opinion of other people who deal with the organisation.

7

Consider the match between the job requirements and your experience.

8

Getting an interview indicates that the employer believes you can do the job.

9

Use a number of sources to discover more about the organisation.

10

23

Exam practice
Job Interviews: expert advice for graduates
Are you a graduate about to apply for jobs? We asked five career consultants
to give some tips on performing well in interviews.
Consultant A

Ask recruiters what disappoints them most about
the people they interview and the answer is often
the same — lack of knowledge of their organisation.
And lack of knowledge suggests lack of intenst.You
will have learned research skills in your university
degree, so apply them to job hunting and don't forget
that social networks can also provide a lot of inside
information. Find out how the organisation you are
applying for has developed in recent years, how its
products or services and markets have changed, who
its competitors are, what its ethos is.Then use that
information intelligently — simply regurgitating facts
won't impress the interviewers. Instead, you need to
demonstrate an understanding of what it all means for
you as a prospective employee, what the challenges
would be and the skills and attributes you'll need to
make a positive contribution.
Consultant B

Three-quarters of interviews are failed within three
minutes of entering the mom. Interviewers are put
off by weak handshakes, a Lick of eye contact, poor
body language and poor posture (slumped shoulders
suggest a lack of confidence). Many recruiters make
early judgements about your trustworthiness, likeability
and professionalism and spend the rest of the interview
confirming these opinions.You should shake hands
firmly and warmly, but wait to be invited to sit down.
Strong handshakes communicate sociability and
friendliness — normally desirable qualities in candidates
— whereas weak handshakes may communicate
introversion and shyness. At the start of the interview
you should smile at and maintain good eye contact
with the interviewer, Take a little time to consider your
response to what the interviewers ask before speaking.
Then, when you have decided what to say, speak
clearly and not too fast.
Consultant C

Inevitably, you will be asked at some stage during the
interview why you want to work for the organisation
you are applying to. This is a great chance to show
your business awareness, but you'll need to prepare.
Before the interview, contact one of the organisation's

24

customers — you should be able to identify some
through an internet search — and ask them questions
such as: 'What's it like to do business with company
X?', 'What makes them stand out?', 'What makes them
successful (or not)?'And then at interview explain the
research that you've done and include their customer's
responses in your answers.That way you'll stand out
from the crowd; not only will you give evidence of
your personal enterprise and your genuine interest in
the organisation, but also your understanding of the
business world.
Consultant D

Most employers will want you to demonstrate
a particular set of abilities which they believe
are essential to the job role, for example team
work, communication, problem solving and time
management. At interview, you are likely to be asked
to give specific examples of times when you have
demonstrated those abilities. Employers recognise
that you might not have lots of directly relevant work
experience, so when they ask these questions they will
usually be happy for you to provide examples from any
aspect of your life, such as your studies, part-time work,
volunteering, interests or extra-curricular activities.
So before you go to an interview, check the job
description for the skills and competencies required,
then reflect on your experiences and think about
examples that you could use as evidence.
Consultant E

It's natural to be nervous, but if an employer thought
you weren't good enough, they simply wouldn't waste
their time on getting to know you in an interview.
What interviewers aim to do is find out whether
what's written in your application is genuine and
how well you'll fit in. So the best advice I can give
is: just be yourself in the interview. Of course, they'll
also be testing your understanding, motivation and
ability, most often by asking you to talk them through
examples of your practical knowledge that show you
have the expertise the job requires.You'll need to
expand on what you've written and it's a good idea to
have some new examples ready, too.

Modals (1)
Ability; possibility; conclusions, willingness, habitual events;
necessity, deduction; 'not necessary', obligation

Context listening
Eig Look at these newspaper headlines and photos.
What do you think the stories are about?

More air travel chaos looms I

School evacuation in South Wales j
Borland link opened

Sport the answer to obesity crisis j
Eg col Listen to a radio news summary and check whether you were right.
1301 Listen again and fill in the gaps.
1 Air passengers cook. be hit badly today.
2 The cabin staff

the new working conditions.

3 Up to 200 teachers and pupils
4 Firefighters
5 I think it
6

There

7 They
8 It

1.4

evacuated from Northfield Primary School.
the fire under control fairly quickly.

of great benefit to the island.
restrictions on the number of people moving here.
their children whatever encouragement they can.
warm, sunny and dry, with temperatures up to 22°C.

In which of the extracts do the words you have written refer to:

1 ability?
2 necessity?

4

4 possibility?
5 prediction?

3 obligation?
25

3

Modals (1)

Grammar
Can/could
We'll get wealthy people from the mainland who can afford second homes. (= general ability)
Before the bridge was built we could only get to the island by ferry. (= general ability in the past)
May/could/might
Up to 700,000 people may experience delays. (= its possible this will happen)
Air passengers could be hit badly today. (= it's possible)
It might be a number of months before the sports centre is back in operation. (= it's possible this is true; less
certain than may or could)
Will/would
That will push up house prices. (= prediction about the future)
If schools highlighted the importance of physical exercise, this would have a major positive impact on children's
attitudes to sport. (= prediction about an imaginary situation)
Must
The cabin staff must accept the new working conditions. (= a rule or order)
This negative attitude to sport mustn't be allowed to continue. (= it's not allowed or not a good idea)
Don't need to / needn't / don't haw to
Parents don't need to / needn't be very interested in sport themselves. (= it's not necessarily true)
I'm sure I don't have to spell out the chaos being caused in the airline industry. (= it's not necessary)
Ought to/ should
Parents ought to / should give their children whatever encouragement they can. (= obligation and
recommendation)

la Can, could, be able to: ability
We can use be able to instead of can or could, particularly in more formal contexts:
The hotels on the island are able to accommodate hundreds of visitors. (more formal) or The hotels on the island
can accommodate ... (less formal)
We use be able to to talk about ability on a specific occasion in the past:
Firefighters were able to bring the fire under control fairly quickly (not Firefietters-eauld-6Fing ...)
We can use either could or be able to in negatives in the past:
They couldn't / weren't able to prevent the fire damaging the school's sports centre.
We usually prefer can or could with verbs of sense (e.g. feel, hear, see, smell, taste) and verbs of thinking
(e.g. believe, remember, understand):
I can't believe Mr Wade is being so confrontational.
We use be able to in perfect tenses, -ing forms, infinitives and after modal verbs:
We've now been able to contact him.
The film star hates not being able to leave her house.
They've got to be able to adapt to change.
Parents might be able to help.
We prefer can and could in passives:
The news can be read on our webs ite.
To talk about a future ability, we use will be able to:
Islanders won't be able to buy properties.

26

Modals (1)
We use can or be able to to talk about possible future arrangements and can (or more politely could) to ask
for permission:
The President can't / is not able to visit the country until next month.
Can/Could ! ask you what you think of the new bridge?

In May, might, can, could: possibility
To talk about a more general possibility of something happening we can use can or may
The temperature in the mountains can/may fall below freezing even at this time of year.
We use could to say that something was possible in the past:
It could be a very rough journey, too.
We don't use may to ask questions about the possibility of something happening. Instead we use could or the
phrase be likely to:
Could the negotiations finish today, do you think?
What time is the meeting likely to finish?
Might is sometimes used in questions, but is rather formal.
We can use these modals in negative sentences, including those with words like only or hardly, to say that things
are not possible or that it is possible that things are not the case
The company can hardly be described as a success. (= it is not possible to describe it as a success)
I think we should call off the strike, but other people may/might not agree with me. (= its possible that people
don't agree with me)

pa Will, would, used to: conclusions, willingness, habitual events
We can use will to draw conclusions or state assumptions about things we think are true:
No doubt you will have heard the news by now.
We use will (not) to talk about (un)willingness or refusal to do something
The minister says he will resign if no solution is found.
We will not be bullied by management.
The computer won't let me print documents. (We can say that inanimate objects, such as machines, can be
unwilling or refuse to do something.)
We use would to talk about willingness in the future, in conditionals, and when we say that we are willing but
unable to do something
Many people would be happy to pay higher taxes for better public services.
The minister would be pleased to accept the invitation if it were not for other commitments.
We don't use would to talk about willingness on a specific occasion in the past:
David Wade agreed to meet the union representatives. (not Eravid-Werde-would-agree
We can use will (present) and would (past) to talk about characteristic behaviour or habits, or about things that
are true now or were true in the past:
Some parents will actually discourage their children from taking up a sport.
Many passengers would get seasick during the crossing
We can use either would or used to to talk about things that happened repeatedly in the past:
The crossing would/used to take over an hour at least.
We don't use would to talk about past states:
We used to be terribly isolated here because the ferry service was so bad. (not

27

Modals (1)

2.4 Must, have (got)to: necessity, deduction
We can use either must or have to to say that it is necessary to do something, although have to is less formal and
is also preferred in questions:
The cabin staff must / have to accept the new working conditions if the airline is to compete.
When we say that something was necessary in the past we use had to, not must
Up to 200 teachers and pupils had to be evacuated from a school in South Wales today.
To say something is necessary in the future we use will have to:
To stay in business we will have to cut our costs.
We use must when we decide that, in our opinion, something is necessary or important:

I must give you my email address.
Have to suggests that the necessity comes from outside; for example, from a rule or official order
The council has to close two city centre car parks following a health and safety report.
We usually use must, rather than have to, when we conclude that something (has) happened or that something
is true.

The bridge must have cost a fortune.
When we conclude that something is impossible, we use can't or couldn't
That can't be right, surely? (not Thot-mustk-befightr surely?)
Sometimes we can use either have to or have got to, although have got to is more informal. We use have to with
frequency adverbs and with other modal verbs:

Islanders normally have to queue for half an hour to get on the ferry.
The airlines will have to return to the negotiating table.
If have is contracted (e.g. I've), then we must include got
They've got to be changed. (not Theiive-fe-be-ehangecli)
When we use the past simple we prefer had to rather than had got to:
The manager seemed to be doing a good job. Why did he have to go? (not Whrhad-he-get-to-ge?)

1111 Didn't need to, didn't have to, needn't have: 'not necessary'
To say it was not necessary to do something in the past, we use didn't need to or didn't have to:
He didn't have to wait long for a response. (= he didn't actually wait long)
When we think something that was done in the past was not necessary, we use need not (needn't) have
The event organisers expected the bad weather to affect ticket sales. However, they need not have worried, as
every ticket was sold (= they worried but it was not necessary)

2.6 Should, ought to: obligation
We can often use either should or ought to to talk about obligation (in giving advice and recommendations,
saying what we think is a good idea and talking about responsibility):
I think we ought to / should keep Borland for the islanders! (= it's a good idea)
The authorities ought to / should prosecute companies that cause pollution. (= talking about responsibility)
We can use either should or ought to to say that something is likely because we have planned it or expect it
to happen:

They say the road will be ready in five years, but they should / ought to be able to build it faster.
We use shouldn't rather than oughtn't to if something is unlikely:
If you're in the south of the country, you shouldn't be troubled by any rain today.

28

Modals (1)

3

Grammar exercises
Choose the correct verb.
1 Adult ladybirds may / might be black, red or yellow.

2

We can / be able to get to the airport in 20 minutes when the new line is finished next year.

3

I left home because I wasn't able to / can't find a job there.

4 A: I can't find my purse anywhere.
B: May / Could you have left it in the restaurant?
5

Not so long ago, more than 20 species of fish could / were able to be found in this river.

6 k. Apparently, there's been an accident in the High Street.
B: That might / is able to explain why the bus is taking so long.
7

k Lena says she'll definitely pay the money back.
13: I wish I was able to / could trust her.

8

This camera is a bit cheaper than the other one, but it mightn't / can't be as good, of course.

Amir is talking to Martha just before and after a job interview. Choose the correct verb.
Before the interview

A: What time (1) have you to / have you got to/must you be there by?
M: 10.30.
A: You (2) must / have to / have got to be really nervous.
M: Terrified! But it doesn't matter, I know I won't get the job.
A: You (3) haven't got to / mustn't / can't be sure of that. You've got just the right experience and qualifications.

M: But I feel tense. I'm worried 1(4) can't / couldn't / mightn't make a good impression in the interview.
A: I'm sure you'll be okay.
After the interview
M: I got it!

A: Congratulations! What (5) had you got to / must you / did you have to do?
M: Well, mainly 1 (6) had got to / had to / must tell them why I wanted to work there.
Az And does the job sound good?

M: Fantastic. I'll (?) have to / must / have got to do a lot of travelling.
A: Well that (8) oughtn't to) shouldn't / mustn't be a problem for you.
M: No, and I may (9) must) have to / have got to spend some time in Barcelona.
A: Well, I think we should certainly go out for a meal to celebrate.
M: Great idea.
Ina Choose the correct sentence ending. Sometimes both are possible.
1 I have to get up early tomorrow, so I ...

2

a

mustn't be too late going to bed tonight

b

don't need to be too late going to bed tonight.

When we got to the station, we found that the train was half an hour late, so we ...
a

didn't need to rush after all,

b needn't have rushed after all.
29

3

Modals (1)

3 The meeting will be quite informal, so you ...
a don't need to wear a suit.
I,

4

don't have to wear a suit.

Fortunately, he wasn't badly hurt in the accident, so he ...
a

needn't go to hospital.

b

didn't need to go to hospital.

5 Gwen has lost a lot of weight during her illness, so you ...

6

7

a

needn't look surprised when you see her again.

b

mustn't look surprised when you see her again.

The tennis courts are open to the public, so you ...
a

needn't be a member of the club to play here.

b

mustn't be a member of the club to play here.

The house was in good condition when I bought it, so I ...
a

didn't need to decorate before I moved in.

b didn't have to decorate before I moved in.
8 As it turned out, the exam was quite easy, sot ...
a

didn't have to spend all that time revising.

b

needn't have spent all that time revising.

3.4

Match a sentence beginning with one of the endings. You won't need to use all the endings.

1 I said I'd pay for her ticket but she

a could cause dangerous driving conditions.

2

In just a few years from now people

b shouldn't take me too long.

3

I still remember how they

c can do 3D printing in their own homes.

4

Forecasters are warning that heavy snow

d wouldn't accept my offer.

5

Here's some really nice cheese that I don't think you e would play together so well as children.

6

We live in an old house that

f would be a school.

7

Writing my geography assignment

g will be able to control their car using an app.
h used to belong to a politician.

30

i

will have tasted before.

j

might have tried.

Exam practice

Modals (1)

3

Listening Part 1

ag You will hear three different extracts. For questions 1 —6, choose the answer (A, B or C) which fits
best according to what you hear. There are two questions for each extract.

Extract One
You hear two people on a radio programme discussing music education for children.
1

They agree that young children should
A

learn an instrument that requires a lot of concentration.
be started on instruction at an early age.

C focus largely on music theory.
2

What does the woman say about the piano?
A It is not possible to play simple tunes on it.
Playing it can discourage children from learning another instrument.
C Most young children are not mature enough to learn it.

Extract 1Wo
You hear part of an interview with a rock climber called Ben.
3

In Ben's view, what is the best way to improve as a climber?
A take the advice of other climbers
learn from the mistakes you make
C watch more experienced climbers

4

Why does Ben prefer not to climb alone in icy conditions?
A He can learn new techniques from other people.
He gets nervous when rocks have ice on them.
C He lacks experience of climbing on ice.

Extract Three
You hear part of an interview with a restaurant critic called Amanda Downing.
5

How do most waiters react when they realise who Amanda is?
A They give her special attention.
They are overcome with nerves.
C They provide her with free food.

6

In what way, according to Amanda, are most restaurant owners completely wrong?
A They think customers choose a restaurant only for its quality of service.
They don't understand customers' motivation for eating in restaurants.
C They think their priorities are different to those of their customers.

31

Context listening
Eli DC3 Listen to this extract from a radio drama. Two police officers are discussing a major art theft
from the fourth floor of a modern art gallery. Which of these pictures (a-f) do the police officers discuss?

o diregr,eg
1;ar

Ednieir
001 Listen again and match the sentence beginnings and endings.
1 Anybody trying to do that would

a

2 After that they might

b be hiding some information from us.

3 So someone else must

c

have been seen from the street below.

4

Do you think he might

d

have finished examining the building by now.

have opened the door from the inside.

5

But of course, he might

e

have been expecting them and that he was part of the gang?

6

I suppose he could

f

have been lowered by rope from the roof.

7

The driver must

g have been waiting nearby.

8 The forensic team should

h be lying.

Ela Which of the sentences in 1.2 include these grammatical patterns?
modal verb + have been + past participle
2

modal verb + have + past participle

3 modal verb + have been + present participle
4 modal verb + be + present participle
32

lc

(would have been seen)

Modals (2)

4

Grammar
F

May / might / could + be + present participle; may / might / could + have + past

participle
M
.1

But of course, he might be lying (not 2,,at of cow Jerat-con be tyre-0 (= in the present: it's possible he's lying)
They could have got in through a window up on the fourth floor. in the past: its possible they got in)
With a future time reference we can use may I might I could + be + present participle and may! might I could
+ have + past participle to say it is possible that something will happen in the future
Nik's flight was cancelled, so he may/might/could be arriving much later than expected.
The thieves may/might/could have left the country by the time we get to the airport.

Egi May / might / could + have been + present participle
We can use may/might/could + have been + present participle to talk about situations or activities that were
possibly happening at a particular past time

Do you think he might have been expecting them?

up Would / will + have + past participle
We use would have + past participle to talk about an imaginary past situation:
People would have seen them from the street below.
To show that we think a past situation actually happened, we use will have + past participle
If they smashed a window to get in, people living nearby will certainly have heard something.

EL, Should! ought to + have + past participle
We use should I ought to + have + past participle to talk about something that didn't happen in the past,
particularly when we want to imply some regret or criticism:

He must know that he ought to have called the poke as soon as he found the door open.
We should have been contacted earlier. (passive)
We can also use should I ought to + have + past participle to talk about an expectation that something
happened, has happened, or will happen:

The forensic team should have finished examining the building by now.

Egi Must! can't / couldn't + have + past participle
So someone else must have opened the door from the inside. (active)
It must have been opened from the inside. (passive)

We can use must have + past participle to draw a conclusion about something in the past.
To draw a conclusion about a past event, saying that it was not possible, we use can't have + past participle or
couldn't have + past participle
One man alone couldn't have carried all those paintings. (not ... mustnIt-litave-earned

33

4

Modals (2)

To draw a conclusion about something happening at a particular past time, saying that it was likely or certain,
we use must have been + present participle
The driver must have been waiting nearby.

2.6 Must be +

present participle

We can use must be + present participle to draw a conclusion about something happening around the time of
speaking. We can use must be + present participle or must be going to to draw a conclusion about something
likely to happen in the future
I'll speak to the curator of the museum later. She must be feeling devastated.
They're taking the head cleaner to the police car They must be going to arrest him. or They must be arresting him.

EgiDare and need

He gets annoyed easily, so t daren't criticise him.! A good car needn't cost a lot.
She dared me to jump across. / We need to talk to them.
Dare and need can be used either as modal verbs (+ bare infinitive) or ordinary verbs (+ to-infinitive).
As modals, dare and need are mostly used in negative contexts. We can use either dare to or dare (without to)
when it is not followed by not
But no one would have dared (to) climb up the outside of the building.
I daren't tell him I've got another job. (not 1-dareWt-te461 ...)
We can't include wafter needn't
We needn't interview everyone in the block (not

nccdn't to

...)

2.8 Had better
We can use had better instead of should I ought to, especially in spoken English, to say that we think it is a good
idea (or not) to do something
We'd better find out all we can about that guard as soon as possible
We'd better not go in until the forensic team has finished.
We use should or ought to when we talk about the past or make general comments:
I should! ought to have phoned her earlier.
People should! ought to support the police more. (not PeoPie-haid-b•tter --)

2.9 Be allowed to
We can use could or was/were allowed to to say that in the past someone had general permission to do something
Only the security guard could / was allowed to stay in the museum after it closed.
To talk about permission on a particular occasion, we use was/were allowed to (not could):
Although he had no ID, the man was allowed to enter the building.
In negative sentences we can use either could or was/were allowed to when talking about permission in general
or on particular occasions:
They let reporters into the crime scene, but they couldn't! weren't allowed to take photos.

34

Modals (2)

2.10

Be supposed

4

to

We can use be supposed to to express a less strong obligation than with should or ought to. Using be supposed to
often suggests that events do not happen as expected:
The entry code is supposed to be known only by the security guard. (= suggests that it was in fact known by
others)
We can use be supposed to to report what people think is true
The building is supposed to be one of the most secure in the country. (= people say it is.) (noti-ht-imitding-sheatel-

eft Other verbs with modal meanings
A number of other verbs are used with similar meanings to modal verbs:

No one is to enter the building until the police give permission. (= obligation — formal)
Everyone present was required to give a statement to the police. (= obligation)
How did they manage to get in? (= ability)
We have succeeded in narrowing down the list of suspects. (= ability)
He might be prepared to tell us more. (= willingness)
The suspects have refused to co-operate. (= unwillingness)
From the evidence found, it follows that it was carefully planned. (= conclusion — formal)
We can conclude that the paintings were stolen by professionals. (= conclusion)

Grammar exercises

in Choose the correct verbs.
1 You should must have been mad to jump off the wall like that You might / will have broken a leg.
2

I didn't dare to admit I couldn't be admitting that I'd dropped his laptop. He will have been / would have been
so angry with me.

3

The weather forecast said it might be raining can be raining later, so we'd better to / we'd better take an
umbrella when we go out.

4

The work on repairing the bridge is supposed to start / ought to start next month, but there have been a lot
of complaints about it. It's the height of the tourist season, so they couldn't / mustn't have chosen a worse
time to do it.

5

Jan must have to know must have known the brakes on the car weren't working properly. He really should

have warned / had better have warned me when he sold it to me.
6

There have been yet more delays in building our new office block. They must were supposed to have
finished by now, but I'm starting to think that I might can have retired before it's built.

35

4

Modals (2)

leg Complete the sentences using the verbs from the box in one of these forms:
have + past participle

be + present participle

have been + past participle

have been + present participle

cause change find screw talk tempt wait work
1 A: The clouds are getting really dark.
8: Yes, I think it could

be. snowing

by morning.

2 k So how did the explosion happen?
B: They think it may

by a gas leak

3 A: You were born in Wooton, weren't you? It's supposed to be a lovely village.
since then — I haven't been there for years.

8: It certainly used to be, but it may
4 k. I rang Weis doorbell twice, but there was no answer.
8: He must

in the garden.

5 k Cutting those roses was so difficult. I've still got thorns in my hands.
B: You might

it easier if you'd been wearing gloves.

6 k I thought we were meeting Anika outside the theatre.
for us inside.

B: Yes, but I can't see her. I suppose she might
7 A: Did you apply for that job in Canada I told you about?

but it was even less than I'm earning now.

13: Well, if the salary was higher I might

8 A: When Aya said 'He's really lazy; do you think she meant me?
8: Well, she could

about someone else, I suppose.

Ingl A group of geography students are going on a field trip to Iceland. Their teacher is talking about the
arrangements. Rewrite the underlined parts using one of the words or phrases from the box. You need to
add extra words in each case.
allow are to compulsory managed possibility of recommend refused succeeded
'Unfortunately, the authorities (1) won't allow us to carry out fieldwork on the glacier. Apparently, because
of weather conditions it's not safe at the moment. Instead, (2) we've been able to arrange a boat trip to study
coastal features, and (3) we may see whales. So I think (4) you should bring a pair of binoculars if you can.
You might want to bring a camera, too. In past years, students have (5) been able to take some excellent
photographs during our Iceland fieldwork Let me remind you, however, that no portable stereos with external
speakers (6) should be taken on the trip, although (7) you may bring an MP3 player if you want to. And finally,
can you remember that (8) everyone must arrange their own private medical insurance for the trip. I'll check
next week that everyone has done this ...'
1
2

have refused to

5
6

3

7

4

8

36

Modals (2)
Read these extracts from newspaper and magazine articles. Choose one phrase from each of the
pairs in the box to complete the sentences.
eettkl4tavebeehrevertted / can-have ,triitrev
could be facing / can be facing
would not have been able to grow / will not be able to grow
ought to give/ ought to have given
might be working / might have been working must get easier / must be getting easier
1 An enquiry into last year's explosion at the Amcon Refinery that killed 25 workers concluded that it
could- have been preventea
if the refinery had installed a hazard warning system, as safety officers
had recommended.
2

as a secret agent
There is some evidence to suggest that Jon Ricci
during the 1960s, although even after the end of the Cold War this was never confirmed.

3

Mateus Weber, chief executive of the Schools Examination Authority, said: 'The newspapers claim that the
But we are absolutely certain that
improving results show that exams
standards have remained the same:

4 Mr Rosi will return to court on 31 January to hear his sentence, having been warned yesterday that he
a long period in prison.
them the lead just before halftime, but he shot straight at the

5

Mesi
goalkeeper, who made an easy save.

6

For centuries the flooding of the Nile was very important because, without it, the people
crops in the dry desert. But global warming has changed the
traditional patterns of agriculture in this part of the world.

37

Exam practice
II

Reading and Use of English Part 4
For questions 1 — 6, complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence,
using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and six words, including
the word given. Here is an example (0).

0

Those working with pre-school age children will probably find the course interesting.
INTEREST
The course is likely

1

to be of biterest to

those working with pre-school age children.

During the winter I prefer watching football to playing it.
SOONER
During the winter I

2

it

Karen says it takes less than an hour to drive there, but I'm sure she has got it wrong.
MUST
Karen says it takes less than an hour to drive there, but she

3

a mistake.

Students wishing to enrol on the course should complete all sections of the application forrn.
REQUIRED
Students wishing to enrol on the course
form.

4

in all sections of the application

I wish I had considered the question more carefully before answering.
THOUGHT
I should

5

the question more carefully before answering.

The factory has been able to reduce its CO2 emissions by 50% in the last year.
SUCCEEDED
The factory

6

back its CO2 emissions by 50% in the last year.

It's a long walk home, so I advise you not to miss the last train.
BETTER
It's a long walk home, so

38

the last train.

Nouns, agreement and
articles
Compound nouns and noun phrases; subject-verb agreement;
countable and uncountable nouns; articles

Context listening
EliNazim has applied to do a college course in Environmental Science. You are going to listen to part of
his interview for a place on the course. What questions do you think the interviewer will ask?

ElE1 OE Listen and check whether you were right.
1111 CIE Listen again and write one word in each gap to complete the compound nouns.
I climate

tho.nge,

4 river

7

-making

3 rain

5

-saving

6 lighting
9 mountain

8 the arms

scheme

1.4

2

Which of the following forms do each of the compound nouns from 1.3 take?

noun + noun

-ing form + noun

noun +

form

Ela Ignoring the shaded parts for now, complete these pain of sentences from the interview with a,

the or — (=no article).
1 a

2

3

There's been

drought there for a number of months, and river levels are low.
drought on food supplies.

b

The main problem has been the effect of

a

And what are your plans for

b

It's hard to imagine

a

What do you want to do after you've left

b

Have you got any questions about the course here at

1.6

future?
future without farming in an area like that.
college ,
college ?

Can you explain the difference in meaning of the shaded parts of the sentences?
39

5

Nouns, agreement and articles

Grammar
ing Compound nouns and noun phrases
START POINT
Common compound noun patterns:
noun + noun

-ing form + noun

donate change

recycluig scheme

i noun + -ing form
ehergy-sooahg

Some compound nouns are usually written as one word (e.g. rainforest), some as separate words (e.g. river
levels), and others with a hyphen (-) e.g. decision-making).
The first noun in a compound usually has a singular form, even if it has a plural meaning
decision-making (not deei5ions-nuikirtg)
Instead of a compound noun we can use
noun + 's + noun when the first noun is the user of the second noun:
a women's clinic, a boys' school
noun + preposition + noun:
a book about energy conservation, a book about grammar (a grammar book is also common)
We can sometimes use noun + + noun or noun + of + noun with a similar meaning
the charity's aim or the aim of the charity
We are more likely to use noun + 's + noun:
when the first noun refers to a particular person or group of people or to talk about time
Mike's job, next year's field trip
We more often use noun + of + noun:
when the second noun is a non-living thing
the title of the CD
when we talk about a process or change over time
the destruction of the rainforest
with a long noun phrase
Mike is the brother of someone! went to school with.
Compounds often combine with other nouns or compounds to form longer combinations:
decision-making process, energy conservation scheme
an Subject—verb agreement
Some nouns with a singular form, referring to a group (e.g. government, class, department team), can be used
with either a singular or plural form of the verb, although in formal contexts a singular verb is often preferred:
The government has (or have) introduced some really interesting projects.
We usually use a singular verb:
when names and titles (e.g. of countries, newspapers, books, films) ending in -s refer to a single unit:
The Netherlands has begun to tackle the problem.
with a phrase referring to a measurement, amount or quantity
Only a few miles separates the villages.
after percent (also per cent or %) referring to a singular or uncountable noun:
... 10% of the country's energy comes from wind power
40

Nouns, agreement and articles
But if percent refers to a plural noun we use a plural verb:
... 60% of people there are malnourished.
We usually use a plural verb:
with nouns that normally have a plural form: congratulations, outskirts, clothes. But note that the following
nouns ending in -s take a singular verb — news, linguistics, mathematics, physics, politics, statistics and
economics when they refer to the academic subject
Statistics is included in the course. (not StratirstiCS-Oft ...)
after a/the majority of, a/the minority of, a number of, a lot of, plenty of, all (of), some of + a plural noun /
pronoun:
The majority of people there are farmers.
But note that we use a singular verb with the number of
The number of people suffering from malnutrition is increasing.
The following verb must agree with the main noun in a sentence with a complex subject:
Levels of income from the sale of handicrafts have increased.
When the subject follows the verb, the verb agrees with the subject
Among the projects invested in by the government is the use of low-energy fight bulbs.

Egli Countable and uncountable nouns
Many nouns in English are uncountable: they are not used with a Ian or in the plural. For example: advice,
equipment, information.
Some nouns are used uncountably when we are talking about the general idea, but countably when we are
talking about particular examples:
You'd be able to get by with a bask knowledge of some statistical techniques. but The desire for knowledge is a
fundamental human instinct.
The charity's project has been a success. (= a particular example of success)
Financial success isn't everything. (= success in general)
Other nouns like this indude business, education, sound. Some of these (e.g. education) are only used countably
in the singular.
Some nouns (e.g. accommodation, speech, work) have a different meaning when they are used countably and
uncountably. Compare
She gave a speech about global warming
Children usually develop speech in their second year
We can use a good/great deal of and amount of before uncountable nouns:
There's a great deal of interest in recycling in the country.
It's saving an enormous amount of waste.
Using these before a plural countable noun is incorrect and you should avoid it in exams. However, they are
sometimes used in this way in informal contexts.
We use a number of before plural countable nouns:
There's been a drought there for a number of months.
and plenty of and a quantity of before either uncountable or plural countable nouns:
There was plenty of opportunity for me to travel around the country.
saw a huge quantity of trees being cut down.

5

5

Nouns, agreement and articles

2.4 Articles
We use the:
with singular, plural or uncountable nouns when we expect the listener or reader to be able to identify the
thing or person referred to:
its a project run by a European charity. The charity's aim ...
when a following phrase or clause identifies what particular thing we are talking about:
the climate in this region, the impact of climate change, the ecology of mountain environments
when we talk about things that are unique
in one part of the world, the sky, the future the first/next time; the only/main problem; the smallest
improvemen4 the arms trade, the environment
Some 'unique' nouns can be used with a/an when we describe a type or aspect of the thing. Compare
What are your plans for the future? and It's hard to imagine a future without farming in an area like that.
We use a/an:
when a singular countable noun is introduced for the first time into a spoken or written text:
He's the head of a project run by a European charity.
to talk about an unspecified person, thing or event:
I didn't have a shower for days.
to describe someone/something or say what type of thing someone/something is:
It's a beautiful country. It's an international organisation.
to say what a person's job is:
You think that as a politician, you'd be able to do this?
But note that we use the or no article to give a person's title or their unique position:
He's the head of a project there. or He's head of a project there.
in number and quantity expressions:
a month or so, a couple of weeks, half an hour, three times a year, 50 cents a litre, a huge number of, a bit
We use no article
with uncountable and plural nouns when we talk generally about people or things rather than about specific
people or things:
I've always been fascinated by plants and animals. They haven't had rain for months.
with some singular nouns referring to institutions (e.g. school, college, hospital, prison, university, work)
when we talk about them generally. Compare crfter you've left college and the course here at the college
with most countries: Brazil, Switzerland, Norway but the Netherlands, the USA, the UK, the Philippines,
the Gambia
with the names of months and days of the week: in June, on Monday; special times of the year: during
Ramadan, at Easter; (or the) with seasons: like to go skiing in winter or... in the winter. However, we generally
use the to talk about a particular month, day, etc I'm going to Nepal in the summer (= next summer)
with meals when we talk about the next one What's for dinner?; a recent one What did you have for
breakfasa; or a meal in general: I usually have toast for breakfast. However, we generally use articles to talk
about a particular meal or particular meals: We had an early dinner, The breakfast in the hotel is great.
with by to talk about means of communication and transport: by post/email/phone; by car /taxi /bus/plane/
air/sea

42

Nouns, agreement and articles

5

Grammar exercises
EU Choose the correct phrase.
1 I don't like tomatoes, so! left them at the side of the plate / the plate's side.
2 It was the decision of Adam / Adam's decision to take out the loan, so he has to take responsibility for
repaying it.
3 I saw two great TV programmes last week. The first was an action film / a film about action, and the second
a documentary about young entrepreneurs / a young entrepreneurs documentary.
4 John is someone I worked with in Malaysia's brother / the brother of someone worked with in Malaysia.
5 He apologised without the hesitation of a moment / a moment's hesitation.
6 My house is by a children playground / a children's playground, so it can be quite noisy.
7 The construction of the new library / The new library's construction took so long that building costs were ten
times higher than first expected.
8 When I got home I found that an envelope had been pushed through my letters box / letter box. In it was
a congratulations card/ a congratulation card from Aunt Alice.
Nazim has been accepted on the Environmental Science course (see 1.1). Read this email he sent to a
friend during a field trip. Fill in the gaps with a present tense form of the verbs in brackets.

Hi Cathy,
Greetings from Nepal! I'm sending this from an internet café in a small town north of
Kathmandu.
are
The town itself isn't very interesting, but the surroundings (1)
(be) beautiful —
I can see the Himalayas through the café windowl
The lectures here are brilliant. The Politics and Ecology courses are great, but Economics
(2)
(be) really difficult — although maths (3)
(be) certainly not
my strong point! I'm really learning a lot about the country and its environmental problems.
A lot of Nepal's population (4)
(live) in the mountainous parts of the country
south of the Himalayas, and the majority of these people (5)
(depend) on
growing crops and keeping animals. The standard of Hying in Kathmandu and the other cities
(have) risen a lot recently, and the number of people likely to move into the
(6)
cities (7)
(be) expected to increase. It's a real problem here. The Himalayan
Times, the local English-language newspaper (9)
(have) just published a
survey showing that most young people would stay in their home villages if jobs were available.
I was planning on coming home at the end of June, but the college (9)
(have)
arranged for a few of us to stay during the summer on a VVWF conservation project in a region
in the north called Helambu — there (10)
(be) just a few kilometres between
the village where I'll be working and the border with China. Among the various projects that
have been set up (11)
(be) a scheme for producing biogas locally — that's gas
produced from plant and animal waste. All my living expenses (12)
(be) being
paid for by the VVWE
Hope all is well with you. I'll send more news when I can.
Nazim

43

5

Nouns, agreement and articles

FE Choose one word or phrase from each of the pairs in the box to complete the sentences. In some
cases, both words or phrases are correct.
advertising / advertisements
fresh fruit / vegetables
rubbish / empty bottles

advice / ups
jobs / work
salt/ cups of coffee

explosives / ammunition
meetings-/-fereign-travel

1 Her job involves a good deal of foray travel.
2 Make sure you eat plenty of
in it.

3 What I don't like about the magazine is the huge number of
4 I think you ought to cut down on the amount of

you have. It's not good for you.

5 The Students' Handbook includes a great deal of

on study skills.
in his apartment

6 The police found a rifle and a large quantity of
7

to do at the weekend.

I have a huge amount of

left behind after the party.

8 I was shocked by the amount of

3.4 Fill in the gaps using the words in the box. Use the same word to complete the sentences in each pair.
Add a/an if necessary.
competition conversation importance iron knowledge paper shampoo time
I.

a He lists his interests as reading, listening to music and good conversation .
b It's difficult to hold a. conversation with Sarah because she keeps interrupting.

2

between the

a Customers have benefited from lower prices resulting from
supermarkets.
b

I see you've bought a new bike.
8: Actually, I won it in

3

a Our council is encouraging everyone to recycle
on her research.

b Professor Tench has recently published
4

by washing your hair with it a few times.

a You can only tell whether you like

b k. Do we need anything from the chemist's?
B: Just
5 a

and a tube of toothpaste.

Don't leave the flower pot outside. It's made of

and it'll rust.

b I burnt a hole in my trousers with
6

a

Has there ever been

when you've regretted moving to Australia?

b Definitions of poverty have changed over
7 a When parents take an active role in schools, children see their parents placing
their education.
b The manuscript is of great historical
8 a

Humans are driven by the pursuit of

b Living in Dublin gave me

44

of Irish history.

on

Nouns, agreement and articles

EL Add
a

a, an

5

or the to these texts where necessary.

an the (x 3)

My brother wasn't very good at taking exams and he left school at 16. At first he went to
the.

work in A construction industry. But he didn't enjoy it, so he took evening course in
accounting. Eventually, he started company offering financial advice. He's now managing
director, and it seems that company's doing really well.

arae -.-.401"..""•00

2

Sa."111.1% -.."11/44"."fr ""41°L.4411"ral 14163/411...

a (x 3) an the (x 3)

Do you remember summer we went to Sweden? 1995,1 think it was.
It was wonderful holiday, wasn't it? And so good to see Paakim again. I'll never forget picnic we had with him.
There were huge number of mosquitoes.
Yes, I remember. And when sun was going down there was amazing red sky.
And then his car broke down on the way home, and we had to go back by bus.
No, we got taxi, didn't we?
Oh yes, that's right.

3

a (x 4) the (x 5)

Patimah has busy life as lawyer, but in her free time she really enjoys hiking. Most weekends
she drives out into countryside and walks for few hours. She says she likes to forget about
work, and she doesn't even take mobile phone with her. In summer she's going hiking in
Philippines. She's never been there before, but friend she's going with knows country well.

rage

45

Exam practice
Reading and Use of English Part 2
For questions 1 - 9, read the text below and think of the word which best fits each gap. Use only one word in
each gap. There is an example at the beginning (0).
The origins of chess
A great (0)
(1)

deat

has been written about the origins of modern chess and them

still considerable debate about the subject. (2)

theory most widely

accepted is that its earliest ancestor was Shaturanga, a game played in India from around AD 600.
(3)

with modern chess, Shaturanga was played on a board with 64 squares. Pieces such

as kings, queens and knights were able to move in different ways with (4)

aim of capturing

other pieces and, at the end of the game, the opponent's king. Unlike chess, it was played by four people.
In the form in (5)

it is played today, chess appeared in southern Europe around the end of

the fifteenth century. Today, chess has become one of the world's (6)
played by millions of people both informally and in tournaments, and (7)
playing online (8)

46

increasing with access to the Internet.

popular games. It is
number of people

Determiners and quantifiers
No, none, not a, not any; much, many, a lot of, lots of; all, both, whole;
every, each; (a/the) few, little; less, fewer (than); much, many, etc. + (of)

Context listenin
g

You are going to listen to three people talking about running. Make notes on three benefits and three
possible problems of taking up running as a hobby.

EU 0:13Listen to three people giving their views on running. Which of the benefits and possible
problems you have listed do the speakers mention?

LEI
1 a

Listen again and fill in the gaps.
Until then I did a bit of sport at school, but I didn't do

rnticki

outside school at all.

(Speaker 1)

2

3

b

In fact, I suppose I didn't have

a

Now I run a few kilometres

b

You can be sure that

a

Inevitably you get

interests. (Speaker 1)
day. (Speaker 2)
one of us will have a really good time. (Speaker 3)
injuries, too - everyone gets aching muscles after a long run.

(Speaker 3)

4

b

It's one of

a

I certainly go out a lot

sports where no special equipment's needed. (Speaker 2)

But surprisingly I seem to have

1.4

during the winter. (Speaker 3)
injuries now than when I was younger. (Speaker 3)

In which pair of sentences is each word or phrase possible in both gaps?

47

6

Determiners and quantifiers

Grammar
EP No none, not a, not any
No two pairs of running shoes are the sank_ (= nor any)
None of them like the thought of running long distances. (= not any of)
We use neither of instead of none of when we talk about two people or things:
Neither of us did any exercise.
We don't usually use not a / not any at the beginning of a clause. Instead we use no and none of
None of the runners is under 60. (not Net-any-opthe-runtrefs ...)
If it is clear from the context what is meant, we can use none without a following noun:
I've had none so far (= e.g. no injuries)

Egi Much, many, a lot of, lots of
Did you do much running last winter?
There could be many reasons for the current interest in running
I get a lot of satisfaction out of it.
You get to me