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English for Everyone: English Grammar Guide
English for Everyone: English Grammar Guide
DKA self-study English grammar guide using innovative visual learning methods to make even the trickiest points easy to understand, for the approximately 1 million adults in the United States learning English as a second language.
Suitable for English-language learners of all levels, from beginner to advanced, and even experienced English speakers looking for a reminder of key language points, English for Everyone: English Grammar Guide is an intuitive way to study English grammar. Clear illustrations put learning points in context and make them easy to remember, and simple graphics and annotated sample sentences break down grammar constructions, making even difficult points easy to follow.
English for Everyone: English Grammar Guide covers the language skills, vocabulary, and grammar needed for the major global English-language exams, including TOEFL. All learning is practiced across speaking, listening, reading, and writing exercises, offering rounded preparation for work, travel, study, and exams. Download the free app and practice online with free listening exercises at www.dkefe.com.
Series Overview: English for Everyone series teaches all levels of English, from beginner to advanced, to speakers of English as a second language. Innovative visual learning methods introduce key language skills, grammar, and vocabulary, which are reinforced with a variety of speaking, reading, and writing exercises to make the English language easier to understand and learn. Visit www.dkefe.com to find out more.
Year:
2016
Edition:
1
Publisher:
DK
Language:
english
Pages:
360 / 362
ISBN 10:
1465452699
ISBN 13:
9781465452696
File:
PDF, 25.47 MB
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Rachmah
Very helpful for beginners in learning English grammar.
07 May 2019 (09:26)
FETRA
Thanks for sharing it
17 September 2019 (09:53)
Elmurza01
Amazing book! I like it
07 February 2020 (19:29)
m00njaguar
Excellent book, highly recommended! Uses a very visual style, with color-coded words to help students visualize how English grammar works
27 February 2020 (22:40)
mokhben
Thank you very much.
18 March 2020 (19:01)
francesca
A great grammar book, easy to understand and fun to read!
23 March 2020 (04:46)
You can write a book review and share your experiences. Other readers will always be interested in your opinion of the books you've read. Whether you've loved the book or not, if you give your honest and detailed thoughts then people will find new books that are right for them.
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ENGLISH FO R E V E RYO N E ENGLISH GRAMMAR GUIDE Consultant, British English Diane Hall has been working in English language teaching for over 30 years, as a teacher, trainer, editor, publisher, and writer. She has published several books, both general courses and grammar books, for major English-language publishers. She has an MA in Applied Linguistics, and is currently also an Associate Lecturer in English grammar and functional linguistics at the Open University. Consultant, American English Professor Susan Barduhn is an experienced English-language teacher, teacher trainer, and author, who has contributed to numerous publications. In addition to directing English-language courses in at least four different continents, she has been President of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language, and an adviser to the British Council and the US State Department. She is currently a Professor at the School of International Training in Vermont, USA. ENGLISH FO R E V E RYO N E ENGLISH GRAMMAR GUIDE conditional negative verb comparative noun US Editors Jenny Siklos, Allison Singer Project Editor Ben Ffrancon Davies Art Editors Dominic Clifford, Paul Drislane, Sunita Gahir, Clare Shedden Editorial Assistants Sarah Edwards, Helen Leech Illustrators Edwood Burn, Michael Parkin Jacket Designers Suhita Dharamjit, Ira Sharma Jacket Editor Claire Gell Jacket Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Producer, Pre-Production Andy Hilliard Producer Mary Slater Managing Editor Daniel Mills Managing Art Editor Anna Hall Publisher Andrew Macintyre Art Director Karen Self Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf DK India Senior Managing Art Editor Arunesh Talapatra Senior Art Editor Chhaya Sajwan Art Editor Meenal Goel Assistant Art Editor Rohit Dev Bhardwaj First American Edition, 2016 Published in the United States by DK Publishing 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Copyright © 2016 Dorling Kindersley Limited DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC 16 17 18 19 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2; 1 001–289769–Dec/2016 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4654-5154-5 DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 SpecialSales@dk.com Printed and bound in China All images © Dorling Kindersley Limited For further information see: www.dkimages.com A WORLD OF IDEAS: SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW www.dk.com Contents The present simple 8 The present simple negative 12 Present simple questions 14 The present continuous 16 Present tenses overview 20 Imperatives 22 The past simple 24 The past simple negative 28 Past simple questions 30 The past continuous 32 The present perfect simple 34 The present perfect continuous 38 The past perfect simple 40 The past perfect continuous 42 “Used to” and “would” 44 Past tenses overview 46 The future with “going to” 48 The future with “will” 50 Object and subject questions 102 The present for future events 54 Indirect questions 104 The future continuous 56 Question tags 106 The future perfect 60 Short questions 108 The future in the past 62 Short answers 110 Future overview 64 Questions overview 112 The passive 66 Reported speech 114 The passive in the past 68 Tenses in reported speech 116 The passive in the future 72 Reporting verbs 120 The passive with modals 74 Reported speech with negatives 122 Other passive constructions 76 Reported questions 124 Conditional sentences 78 Reported speech overview 128 Other conditional sentences 84 Types of verbs 130 Conditional sentences overview 86 Action and state verbs 132 Future possibilities 88 Infinitives and participles 134 Wishes and regrets 90 Verb patterns 138 Forming questions 94 Verb patterns with objects 142 Question words 98 Verb patterns with prepositions 145 Open questions 100 Phrasal verbs 146 Modal verbs 152 Quantity 202 Ability 154 Approximate quantity 208 Permission, requests, and offers 156 Personal pronouns 210 Suggestions and advice 158 Reflexive pronouns 212 Obligations 162 Indefinite pronouns 216 Making deductions 164 Possession 220 Possibility 166 Defining relative clauses 226 Articles 168 Non-defining relative clauses 228 Articles overview 174 Other relative structures 230 “This / that / these / those” 176 Question words with “-ever” 232 “No / none” 180 “There” 234 “Each / every” 182 Introductory “it” 238 “Either / neither / both” 184 Shifting focus 240 Singular and plural nouns 188 Inversion 242 Countable and uncountable nouns 190 Ellipsis 244 Subject-verb agreement 192 Shortening infinitives 246 Abstract and concrete nouns 194 Substitution 250 Compound nouns 196 Adjectives 252 Numbers 198 Gradable and non-gradable adjectives 256 Comparative adjectives 258 Linking words overview 312 Two comparatives together 263 Prefixes 314 “As... as” comparisons 266 Suffixes 316 Superlative adjectives 268 Easily confused phrases 320 Adverbs of manner 272 Sequencing and organizing 322 Comparative and superlative adverbs 274 Correcting and changing the subject 324 Adverbs of degree 276 Deciding and hedging 326 Adverbs of time 280 Making conversation 328 Adverbs of frequency 282 “So” and “such” 284 Reference 330 “Enough” and “too” 286 Glossary 350 Prepositions 288 Index and Acknowledgments 354 Prepositions of place 290 Prepositions of time 292 Other prepositions 296 Dependent prepositions 298 Coordinating conjunctions 302 Subordinating conjunctions 306 More linking words 310 The present simple The present simple is used to make simple statements of fact, to talk about things that happen repeatedly, and to describe things that are always true. See also: Present continuous 4 Present for future events 19 Adverbs of frequency 102 THE PRESENT SIMPLE To make the present simple of most verbs, use the base form (the infinitive without “to”). The base form of the verb “to eat.” Adverbs of frequency are often used with the present simple. With “he,” “she,” and “it,” add “-s” to the base form. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM The base form of the verb. SUBJECT VERB REST OF SENTENCE With “he,” “she,” and “it,” “-s” is added. 8 “-S” AND “-ES” ENDINGS With some verbs, “-es” is added for “he,” “she,” and “it.” These include verbs ending with “-sh,” “-ch,” “-o,” “-ss,” “-x,” and “-z.” “-es” is added to verbs ending with “-sh.” “-es” is added to verbs ending with “-o.” “-es” is added to verbs ending with “-ch.” “-es” is added to verbs ending with “-x.” “-es” is added to verbs ending with “-ss.” “-es” is added to verbs ending with “-z.” FURTHER EXAMPLES COMMON MISTAKES FORMING THE PRESENT SIMPLE When the present simple is used with “he,” “she,” “it,” or one person’s name, it always ends in “-s” or “-es.” There is no need to add the auxiliary verb “do” when forming the present simple. It is only used to form questions and negatives. An “s” is added to the base form “start.” “Start” without an “s” is only used for “I,” “you,” “we,” and “they.” “Do” is only used as an auxiliary verb when forming negatives or questions. 9 “BE” IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE “Be” is an important verb with an irregular present simple form. “Is” also follows “she” and “it.” “Are” also follows “we” and “they.” HOW TO FORM SUBJECT FURTHER EXAMPLES 10 “BE” REST OF SENTENCE Contractions can also be used. “HAVE” IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE “Have” is an irregular verb. The third person singular form is “has” not “haves.” HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “HAVE” OBJECT “Has” is used for the third person singular: “he,” “she,” and “it.” FURTHER EXAMPLES 11 The present simple negative To make negative sentences using “be” in the present simple, “not” is added after the verb. For other verbs, the auxiliary verb “do not” or “does not” is used. See also: Present simple 1 Present overview 5 Types of verbs 49 NEGATIVES WITH THE VERB “BE” The verb “be” takes the same form in positive and negative sentences. The only difference is adding “not.” HOW TO FORM SUBJECT + “BE” “NOT” NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS “Is not” and “are not” can be contracted in two ways. The subject and verb can be contracted, or the verb and “not.” They mean the same thing. FURTHER EXAMPLES “I amn’t” is incorrect. 12 “You are” becomes “you’re.” “Are not” becomes “aren’t.” REST OF SENTENCE NEGATIVES WITH OTHER VERBS IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE For verbs other than “be,” “do not” or “does not” goes before the verb to make the negative. Verb in base form. HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “DO / DOES” + “NOT” BASE FORM REST OF SENTENCE The base form is used no matter what the subject is. FURTHER EXAMPLES This is the contracted form of “does not.” COMMON MISTAKES FORMING NEGATIVE SENTENCES The main verb in a negative sentence always stays in its base form, even if the subject is “he,” she,” or “it.” 13 Present simple questions Questions in the present simple with “be” are formed by swapping the verb and subject. For other verbs, the auxiliary verb “do” or “does” must be added before the subject. See also: Present simple 1 Forming questions 34 Question words 35 Open questions 36 QUESTIONS WITH “BE” IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE To form questions in the present simple using “be,” reverse the order of the subject and the verb. In a question, the verb moves to the start of the sentence. In a statement, the subject comes before the verb. The subject comes after the verb. HOW TO FORM “BE” FURTHER EXAMPLES 14 SUBJECT REST OF SENTENCE Question words can be used before the verb to form open questions. QUESTIONS WITH “DO” AND “DOES” For questions with verbs other than “be,” start the question with “do” or “does.” Don’t swap the subject and the main verb. Add “do” to questions with “I,” “you,” “we,” and “they.” Add “does” to questions with “he,” “she,” and “it.” The main verb goes in its base form. HOW TO FORM “DO / DOES” SUBJECT BASE FORM OF VERB REST OF SENTENCE The verb never takes an “-s” or “-es” when you ask a question. FURTHER EXAMPLES Question words can be used before “do” or “does” to form open questions. COMMON MISTAKES FORMING PRESENT SIMPLE QUESTIONS Never add “-s” or “-es” to the base form of the verb when asking a question, even in the third person singular (“he,” “she,” or “it”). The main verb always goes in its base form in questions. Do not add “-s” or “-es” to the main verb when asking a question. 15 The present continuous The present continuous is used to talk about continued actions that are happening in the present moment. It is formed with “be” and a present participle. See also: Present simple 1 Action and state verbs 50 Infinitives and participles 51 THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS The present continuous is used to describe a current, continued action. This is the present simple. It describes a repeated action or situation. The present continuous uses the verb “be.” This is the present continuous. It describes what is happening right now. HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “AM / IS / ARE” VERB + “-ING” REST OF SENTENCE Present participle FURTHER EXAMPLES 16 The subject and the verb can be contracted. PRESENT PARTICIPLE SPELLING RULES The present participle is formed by adding “-ing” to the base form of the verb. Some participles have slightly different spelling rules. Last letter is an “-e.” Add “-ing” to form regular present participles. Leave out “e.” Last letters are “-ie.” Change “-ie” to “y.” Last letters are consonant–vowel–consonant and the final syllable is stressed. Double the last letter, unless it’s “w,” “x,” or “y.” TIP Present participles follow the same spelling rules as gerunds. FURTHER EXAMPLES Don’t double the last letter because the final syllable is not stressed. COMMON MISTAKES STATE VERBS IN CONTINUOUS TENSES Action verbs can be used in simple and continuous forms. State verbs are not usually used in continuous forms. ACTION STATE 17 QUESTIONS IN THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS To ask questions in the present continuous, swap the subject and the form of “be.” “He” is the subject. In a question, the verb moves to the start of the sentence. This action is happening right now. HOW TO FORM “AM / IS / ARE” FURTHER EXAMPLES 18 SUBJECT VERB + “-ING” REST OF SENTENCE Question words such as “what,” “where,” and “how” can be used before the verb to form open questions. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS NEGATIVE To make the negative of the present continuous, add “not” after “be.” The present participle stays the same when you make the negative. Add “not” after “be” to make the negative. Contractions are also possible. HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “AM / IS / ARE” + “NOT” VERB + “-ING” REST OF SENTENCE The present participle doesn’t change. FURTHER EXAMPLES 19 Present tenses overview THE PRESENT SIMPLE AND THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS The present simple is used to talk about permanent situations, regular occurrences, things that are always true, repeated actions, and ongoing states. The present continuous is used to refer to temporary situations, repeated actions around the present moment, and ongoing actions in the present moment. This is always true. This is a temporary situation. PRESENT TENSE QUESTIONS Present simple questions with “be” are formed differently from other verbs. The form of “be” comes before the subject. Present continuous questions are always formed in the same way. “Do” or “does” is added before the subject. The form of “be” comes before the subject. COMMON MISTAKES USING “S” IN THE PRESENT SIMPLE “-s” is never added to the base form of the verb when asking a question or making a negative sentence, even in the third person singular (“he,” “she,” or “it”). AFFIRMATIVE An “-s” is added to the base form in affirmative sentences. The base form without an “-s” is only used for “I,” “you,” “we,” and “they.” 20 The present simple and present continuous are used in different situations. There are different ways to form questions and negatives with these tenses. See also: Present simple 1 Present continuous 4 Forming questions 34 Infinitives and participles 51 This is a repeated action. This is a continuing state. This is a repeated action happening around the present moment. This is an ongoing action in the present moment. PRESENT TENSE NEGATIVES Present simple negatives with “be” are formed differently from other verbs. “Not” is added after the form of “be.” Present continuous negatives are always formed in the same way. “Do not” or “does not” is added between the subject and main verb. “Not” is added after the form of “be.” QUESTION NEGATIVE The base form is used in the negative. The verb always goes in its base form in questions. “-s” or “-es” are not added to the main verb when asking a question. “-s” or “-es” are not added to the main verb in negative sentences. 21 Imperatives Imperatives are used to give commands or to make requests. They can also be used to give warnings or directions. IMPERATIVES An exclamation mark is used if the imperative is urgent. Imperatives are formed using the base form of the verb (the infinitive without “to”). The base form of the verb “to stop.” FURTHER EXAMPLES NEGATIVE IMPERATIVES “Do not” or “don’t” can be added before the verb to make an imperative negative. FURTHER EXAMPLES 22 See also: Types of verbs 49 Suggestions and advice 59 Indefinite pronouns 79 SUBJECTS WITH IMPERATIVES An imperative sentence does not usually have a subject, but sometimes a noun or a pronoun is used to make it clear who is being talked to. FURTHER EXAMPLES The subject can also be placed at the end. For emphasis “you” can be used in an imperative clause. POLITE REQUESTS Imperatives in English can be considered rude. Words can be added to make them more polite. “Just” can go before the imperative. “Please” can be placed before the imperative verb to make a request more polite. “Please” can also be placed at the end of the sentence. “Do” can go before the imperative verb to make a request more formal. MAKING SUGGESTIONS WITH “LET’S” Base form. “Let’s” can be used to make a suggestion for an activity that includes the speaker. “Not” goes after “let’s” to form the negative. 23 The past simple The past simple is used to talk about completed actions that happened at a fixed time in the past. It is the most commonly used past tense in English. See also: Past simple negative 8 Past simple questions 9 Present perfect simple 11 REGULAR VERBS IN THE PAST SIMPLE To form a regular verb in the past simple, “-ed” is added to the base form. TUESDAY TODAY The verb ends in "-ed.” Fixed point in the past. HOW TO FORM Most verbs in the past simple do not change with the subject. SUBJECT PAST VERB REST OF SENTENCE The same form is used for all subjects. FURTHER EXAMPLES 24 SPELLING RULES FOR THE PAST SIMPLE The past simple of all regular verbs ends in “-ed,” but for some verbs, there are some spelling changes, too. Last letter is “-e.” For many regular verbs, “-ed” is added. Just a “-d” is added. Last letters are a consonant and a “-y.” The “-y” is removed and “-ied” is added instead. A stressed final syllable ending consonant-vowel-consonant. The last consonant is doubled and “-ed” is added. FURTHER EXAMPLES 25 IRREGULAR VERBS IN THE PAST SIMPLE Some verbs do not take “-ed” to form the past simple. There are no specific rules about how to form irregular verbs in the past simple. “Went” is the past simple of “go.” YESTERDAY COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS IN THE PAST SIMPLE FURTHER EXAMPLES 26 TODAY “BE” IN THE PAST SIMPLE The past simple of “be” is completely irregular. It is the only verb in the past simple which changes depending on the subject. PAST NOW HOW TO FORM The past simple of “be” changes with the subject. SUBJECT “BE” REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES 27 The past simple negative The past simple negative is used to talk about things that did not happen in the past. It is always formed the same way, unless the main verb is “be.” See also: Past simple 7 Present simple negative 2 Types of verbs 49 THE PAST SIMPLE NEGATIVE The past simple negative uses “did not” or “didn’t” with the base form of the main verb. The main verb is not put into the past simple. “played” is the past simple. LAST WEEK To make the negative, “didn’t” is used with the base form. YESTERDAY TODAY HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “DID NOT / DIDN’T” “Didn’t” or “did not” are used to make the negative, no matter what the subject is. The base form of the main verb is used in the past simple negative. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Did not” is only used for emphasis, or in formal situations. 28 BASE FORM OF VERB REST OF SENTENCE COMMON MISTAKES BASE FORMS IN THE PAST SIMPLE NEGATIVE When using the negative form of the past simple, “didn’t” plus the main verb in the base form is used. The main verb is never in the past simple. “Play” should be in the base form. The main verb should only go into the past simple if it’s a positive statement. THE PAST SIMPLE NEGATIVE OF “BE” To form the past simple negative of “be,” “not” is added after “was” or “were.” HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WAS / WERE” “NOT” REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES “Was not” is often shortened to “wasn’t.” “Were not” is often shortened to “weren’t.” 29 Past simple questions Questions in the past simple are formed using “did.” For past simple questions with “be,” the subject and the verb “was” or “were” are swapped around. See also: Past simple 7 Forming questions 34 Types of verbs 49 QUESTIONS IN THE PAST SIMPLE Use “did” plus the base form of the verb to ask a question in the past simple. In the statement the main verb is in the past simple. “Did” goes before the subject. The main verb is in its base form. You can add question words to ask open questions. HOW TO FORM “DID” SUBJECT BASE FORM OF VERB REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES Add question words to make open questions. 30 QUESTIONS IN THE PAST SIMPLE WITH “BE” To make a question using the verb “be” in the past simple, swap the order of the subject and “was” or “were.” In a question, the verb and the subject swap places. In a statement, the subject comes before the verb. The subject comes after the verb. HOW TO FORM “WAS / WERE” SUBJECT REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES Add question words to make open questions. 31 The past continuous The past continuous is used in English to talk about actions or events that were in progress at some time in the past. It is formed with “was” or “were” and a present participle. See also: Past simple 7 Infinitives and participles 51 THE PAST CONTINUOUS Past simple shows the action happened once and is now finished. English uses the past continuous to talk about ongoing actions that were in progress at a certain time in the past. 11:30AM 12:00PM 12:30PM The past continuous shows the action went on for some time, but is now finished. Past continuous describes a continuing action. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM “Was” or “were” followed by the present participle form the past continuous. SUBJECT “WAS / WERE” “Was” or “were” is used depending on the subject. 32 VERB + “-ING” REST OF SENTENCE “-ing” is added to the main verb. THE PAST CONTINUOUS FOR SCENE-SETTING The past continuous is often used in storytelling to set a scene or describe a situation. THE PAST CONTINUOUS AND THE PAST SIMPLE When English uses the past continuous and past simple together, the past continuous describes a longer, background action, and the past simple describes a shorter action that interrupts the background action. CONTINUING BACKGROUND ACTION INTERRUPTING MAIN ACTION FURTHER EXAMPLES 33 The present perfect simple The present perfect simple is used to talk about events in the recent past that still have an effect on the present moment. It is formed with “have” and a past participle. See also: Past simple 7 Present perfect continuous 12 Infinitives and participles 51 PRESENT PERFECT The present perfect can be used to talk about the past in a number of different ways: To give new information or news. To talk about a repeated action that continues to happen over a period of time. To talk about an event that started in the past and is still happening now. FURTHER EXAMPLES THE PRESENT PERFECT HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “HAVE / HAS” PAST PARTICIPLE “Has” is used for “he,” “she,” and “it.” 34 REST OF SENTENCE REGULAR PAST PARTICIPLES Regular past participles are formed by adding “-ed” to the base form. IRREGULAR PAST PARTICIPLES English has a lot of irregular past participles, which sometimes look very different from the base form. COMMON MISTAKES PAST SIMPLE FORMS AND PAST PARTICIPLES It is important not to mix up past simple forms with past participles. This is the past participle of “see.” This is the past simple form of “see,” and shouldn’t be used in perfect tenses. 35 “GONE / BEEN” “Be” and “go” are both used in the present perfect to talk about going somewhere, but they have different meanings. She is still in Florida. She went to Florida, but now she is back home. FURTHER EXAMPLES 36 THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND THE PAST SIMPLE The past simple is used to talk about something that happened at a definite time. The present perfect is used when a particular time is not specified. There’s no specific date, so the present perfect is used. A specific date, 2010, is given, so the past simple is used. 2010 NOW 2003 2008 2010 2014 NOW FURTHER EXAMPLES PAST SIMPLE PRESENT PERFECT THE PRESENT PERFECT IN US ENGLISH US English often uses the past simple when UK English would use the present perfect. 37 The present perfect continuous The present perfect continuous is used to talk about a continuing activity in the past that still has an effect on the present moment. It usually refers to the recent past. See also: Past simple 7 Present perfect simple 11 Infinitives and participles 51 THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS The present perfect continuous describes an activity that took place over a period of time in the recent past. The activity might just have stopped or might still be happening. The past activity often affects the present moment. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS FURTHER EXAMPLES “I have” can be shortened to “I’ve.” “He has” can be shortened to “He’s.” HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “HAS / HAVE” “BEEN” Use “have” or “has,” depending on the subject. 38 VERB + “-ING” “Been” stays the same for all subjects. OBJECT “-ing” is added to the main verb. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS AND THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE The present perfect continuous is used to show that an activity in the past was in progress. It is possible that the activity is still taking place. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS The present perfect simple is used to show that an activity in the past is finished. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE FURTHER EXAMPLES 39 The past perfect simple English uses the past perfect simple with the past simple to talk about two or more events that happened at different times in the past. See also: Past simple 7 Present perfect simple 11 Past perfect continuous 14 Participles 51 THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE When talking about two events that happened at different times in the past, the past simple describes the event that is closest to the time of speaking. The past perfect describes an event further back in the past. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE 8:10PM 8:20PM NOW 7:00AM 7:30AM NOW HOW TO FORM Use “had” followed by the past participle to form the past perfect. SUBJECT “Had” does not change with the subject. 40 “HAD” PAST PARTICIPLE The past participle expresses the action in the past. REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES Even if the past simple action is first in the sentence, it still happened later. THE PRESENT PERFECT AND PAST PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE The present perfect is used to talk about an action that took place in the recent past and is still relevant to the present moment. ONE HOUR AGO NOW PAST PERFECT SIMPLE The past perfect is used to talk about an action that took place before another moment in the past. ONE HOUR BEFORE PAST NOW 41 The past perfect continuous English uses the past perfect continuous with the past simple to talk about an activity that was in progress before another action or event happened. See also: Past simple 7 Present perfect continuous 12 Infinitives and participles 51 THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS The past simple refers to a specific completed event in the past. The past perfect continuous describes a repeated action or continuing activity that was taking place before that completed event. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS PAST SIMPLE TWO YEARS BEFORE PAST NOW SIX HOURS BEFORE PAST NOW HOW TO FORM The past perfect continuous is formed using “had been” plus a present participle. SUBJECT “HAD BEEN” “Had been” doesn't change with the subject. 42 VERB + “-ING” REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS The present perfect continuous is used to talk about an action in progress or repeated activity that was taking place until the present moment. TWO HOURS AGO NOW PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS The past perfect continuous is used to talk about an ongoing action or repeated activity that was taking place until another specified moment in the past. TWO HOURS BEFORE PAST NOW 43 “Used to” and “would” When talking about habits or states in the past, “used to” or “would” are often used. English often uses these forms to contrast the past with the present. See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 4 Past continuous 10 Adverbs of frequency 102 “USED TO” “Used to” can be used with the base form of a verb to talk about past habits. Refers to a past habit. PAST “Used to” can also be used to talk about fixed states at some indefinite time in the past. Refers to a past state. PAST FURTHER EXAMPLES 44 NOW NOW “Used” becomes “use” in questions and negative forms. COMMON MISTAKES “USED TO” AND THE PAST CONTINUOUS When talking about habits in the past, “used to” should be used. It is incorrect to use the past continuous in this context. The past continuous shouldn’t be used to talk about past habits. ANOTHER WAY TO SAY “USED TO” WITH HABITS “Used to” can be replaced by “would” in writing and formal speech, but only to talk about past habits. These statements often include a reference to time to describe when, or how often something happened. Refers to a past habit. 6 YEARS AGO 5 YEARS AGO 4 YEARS AGO NOW FURTHER EXAMPLES COMMON MISTAKES “WOULD” WITH STATES “Would” cannot be used to talk about states in the past. “Used to” must be used instead. “Would” cannot be used in this way with state verbs. 45 Past tenses overview PAST TENSES The past simple refers to a single, completed action in the past. The present perfect simple refers to an unfinished action or series of actions that started in the past, or past actions that still have a consequence in the present moment. This is a completed action in the past that is now over. The past continuous refers to a continuing action in the past. Eve is still in London, so it is still relevant to the present moment. The present perfect continuous refers to a continuing activity in the past that still has a consequence in the present moment. This is a consequence in the present moment. At that moment, he was in the process of washing his car. PAST SIMPLE AND PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE The past simple is used to refer to single, completed actions or events in the past. These no longer have a consequence in the present moment. The essay is finished, so the past simple is used. This is no longer relevant to the present moment, because the keys were found. 46 The present perfect simple is used to refer to actions or events in the past that are unfinished, or still have consequences in the present moment. The essay is unfinished, so the present perfect simple is used. The keys are still lost in the present moment, so the present perfect simple is used. There are eight different ways to talk about the past in English. The differences between the past simple and the present perfect simple are particularly important. See also: Past simple 7 Present perfect simple 11 Infinitives and participles 51 The past perfect simple refers to an action or event that took place before another action or event in the past. “Used to” and “Would” are used to talk about repeated actions in the past that no longer happen. The past perfect continuous refers to a continuing action or event that was taking place before another action or event that happened in the past. “Used to” can also be used to refer to a fixed state at some indefinite time in the past that is no longer true. “Live” is a state, so “would” can’t be used. KEY LANGUAGE NARRATIVE TENSES Narrative tenses are types of past tense that are used when telling a story. The past continuous is used to set the scene. The past simple describes actions in the story. The past perfect is used to talk about things that happened before the beginning of the story. PAST CONTINUOUS PAST PERFECT PAST SIMPLE 47 The future with “going to” Future forms in English are formed using auxiliary verbs. One of the most commonly used constructions is “going to” plus the base form of the main verb. See also: The future with “will” 18 Future continuous 20 Future in the past 22 HOW TO FORM THE FUTURE WITH “GOING TO” SUBJECT “BE” BASE FORM OF VERB “GOING TO” “GOING TO” FOR FUTURE PLANS “Going to” is used to talk about future events that have been planned in advance, rather than decided upon at the time of speaking. “Be” matches the subject of the sentence. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Not” is added after the verb “be” to make the negative. 48 Base form of verb. “Going to” doesn’t change with the subject. REST OF SENTENCE “GOING TO” FOR PREDICTIONS “Going to” is also used to make predictions when there is evidence in the present moment. “Going to” gives the prediction. Evidence in the present moment means that you can make a prediction. FURTHER EXAMPLES QUESTIONS WITH “GOING TO” Questions with “going to” are formed by swapping the subject and “be.” FURTHER EXAMPLES Question words can be added to the start of the question. 49 The future with “will” “Will” is used to form some future tenses in English. It can be used in several different ways, which are all different from the future with “going to.” See also: The future with “going to” 17 Infinitive and participles 51 HOW TO FORM THE FUTURE WITH “WILL” SUBJECT “WILL” BASE FORM OF VERB REST OF SENTENCE the new movie. “Will” doesn’t change with the subject. THE FUTURE USING “WILL” TIP English uses “will” when talking about the future in four main ways: Remember to use the future with “going to” for predictions based on current evidence, and for decisions made before the time of speaking. To make a prediction about what you think will happen. This prediction is not based on evidence. Contraction To offer to do something for someone. To make a promise. This decision was not planned in advance. To describe a decision you’ve just made. 50 “WILL” FOR PREDICTIONS “Will” is used to talk about predictions about the future when there is no firm evidence for that prediction. There is no firm evidence that the person will like the movie. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Probably" means something is likely, but not definite. “WILL” FOR QUICK DECISIONS “Will” is used to describe quick decisions that someone has made at the time of speaking. They are often a solution to an unexpected problem. “Will” shows you have just made the decision. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Will not” or “won’t” is the negative form of “will.” “So” is often used to join a situation to a quick decision. 51 “WILL” FOR MAKING OFFERS “Will” is also used to offer to do something for someone. FURTHER EXAMPLES “WILL” FOR MAKING PROMISES "Will" can be used when making a promise. FURTHER EXAMPLES 52 “THINK” WITH “WILL” “Think” can be used with “will” to show that a prediction is just an opinion, or a decision is not final. “That” is used after “think,” but it can be left out. This is an uncertain prediction. This decision is still being considered. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Think” is made negative, rather than “will.” FUTURE WITH “SHALL” “Shall” is used instead of “will” when asking for a decision, or making offers or suggestions. In these cases, it is only used with “I” or “we.” It is rarely used in US English. “Shall” is being used to make an offer. “Shall” is being used to make a suggestion. FURTHER EXAMPLES 53 The present for future events The present simple and present continuous can be used to talk about future events that are already planned. They are usually used with a future time word or time phrase. See also: Present simple 1 Present continuous 4 Prepositions of time 107 THE PRESENT SIMPLE FOR FUTURE EVENTS The present simple can be used to talk about events that are scheduled to take place in the future. This refers to a point in the future. Present simple. NOW 10PM HOW TO FORM SUBJECT FURTHER EXAMPLES 54 PRESENT SIMPLE FUTURE TIME PHRASE THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS FOR FUTURE EVENTS The present continuous can be used to talk about pre-arranged future events. Time markers usually show whether the event is in the present or future. “At the moment” shows the action refers to the present. Time clause “tomorrow” shows the action refers to the future. Present continuous refers to Dave’s present activity. Present continuous refers to a future event that is planned. NOW TOMORROW HOW TO FORM SUBJECT PRESENT CONTINUOUS FUTURE TIME PHRASE FURTHER EXAMPLES 55 The future continuous The future continuous can be formed using “will” or “going to.” It describes an event or situation that will be in progress at some point in the future. See also: Present continuous 4 “Will” 18 Infinitives and participles 51 THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS WITH WILL The future continuous describes an event that will be in progress at a given time in the future which is often stated. The event will start before the stated time and may continue after it. PRESENT CONTINUOUS FUTURE CONTINUOUS NOW 10 YEARS’ TIME HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WILL BE” FURTHER EXAMPLES 56 PRESENT PARTICIPLE OBJECT THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS WITH “ANYWAY” The future continuous can also be used to talk about events that are going to happen as a matter of course or “anyway.” FURTHER EXAMPLES “Anyway” is implied here. NEUTRAL QUESTIONS The future continuous is also used to ask neutral questions: questions asked for information, not to make a request. NEUTRAL QUESTION Future continuous. REQUEST Future simple. FURTHER EXAMPLES 57 THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TO TALK ABOUT THE PRESENT You can also use the future continuous to speculate about what is happening at the present moment. FURTHER EXAMPLES 58 THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS WITH “GOING TO” The future continuous can sometimes be formed with “going to” instead of “will,” but this is less common. It can be used in most future continuous constructions except to speculate about the present. HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “BE” “GOING TO BE” PRESENT PARTICIPLE REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES 59 The future perfect The future perfect is used to talk about an event that will overlap with, or finish before, another event in the future. It can be used in simple or continuous forms. See also: Infinitives and participles 51 Prepositions of time 107 THE FUTURE PERFECT The future perfect is used to describe an action or event that will be finished before a certain future time. NOW NOVEMBER “By” has a similar meaning to “before.” DECEMBER JANUARY HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WILL HAVE” FURTHER EXAMPLES 60 PAST PARTICIPLE OBJECT TIME PHRASE THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS The future perfect continuous can be used to predict the length of an activity. This tense looks back from the imagined finishing time in the future. LAST JULY NOW JULY FURTHER EXAMPLES TIME PHRASE SUBJECT “WILL HAVE BEEN” PRESENT PARTICIPLE REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES 61 The future in the past There are a number of constructions in English that can be used to describe thoughts about the future that someone had at some point in the past. See also: Past continuous 10 Infinitives and participles 51 THE FUTURE IN THE PAST USING “WAS GOING TO” The future in the past is used to look back on an earlier prediction. Where “going to” is used to talk about the future from the present, “was / were going to” is used to talk about a past view of it. EARLIER NOW HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WAS / WERE” FURTHER EXAMPLES 62 “GOING TO” BASE FORM REST OF SENTENCE THE FUTURE IN THE PAST USING “WOULD” Where “will” is used to talk about a future event from the present, “would” is used to talk about a past view of it. EARLIER NOW FURTHER EXAMPLES THE FUTURE IN THE PAST USING THE PAST CONTINUOUS The past continuous is used to talk about an arranged future event from a time in the past. MONDAY MORNING MONDAY AFTERNOON NOW FURTHER EXAMPLES 63 Future overview THE FUTURE The present simple can be used to talk about events that are timetabled or scheduled to take place in the future. The simple future is the most common form used to refer to an event in the future. The present continuous can be used to talk about future arrangements and plans. The future continuous describes an event that will be in progress at a given time in the future. The event will start before the stated time and may continue after it. “GOING TO” AND “WILL” English uses both “going to” and “will” to talk about the future. They can sometimes have a very similar meaning, but there are certain situations where they mean different things. “Will” is used to make predictions that aren’t based on present evidence. “Going to” is used when there is evidence in the present moment to support a prediction. 64 This is a prediction without firm evidence. English uses different constructions to talk about the future. These are mostly formed with the auxiliary verb “will” or a form of “be” with “going to.” The future perfect is used to predict when an action or event will be finished. This tense looks back from an imagined time in the future. See also: The future with “going to” 17 The future with “will” 18 The future in the past describes thoughts about the future that someone had at some point in the past. There are three ways to form this construction. “Am going to” becomes “was going to.” “Will” becomes “would.” The future perfect continuous is used to predict the eventual duration of an activity. This tense looks back from the endpoint of the action. “Am starting” becomes “was starting.” This decision was not planned in advance. “Will” is used when a decision is made at the time of speaking. This decision has already been planned. “Going to” is used when talking about a decision that has already been made. 65 The passive In most sentences, the subject carries out an action and the object receives it, or the result of it. In passive sentences, this is reversed: the subject receives the action. See also: Present simple 1 Present continuous 4 Infinitives and participles 51 THE PRESENT SIMPLE PASSIVE Passive sentences take emphasis away from the agent (the person or thing doing the action), and put it on the action itself, or the person or thing receiving the action. In the present simple passive, the present simple verb becomes a past participle. The focus is on “many people.” The subject of the active sentence is “many people.” “Study” changes to “is studied.” The focus is on “this book,” which is the subject of the passive sentence. FURTHER EXAMPLES The speaker doesn’t mention the agent because the verb obviously refers to the police. The passive is used when the agent is obvious, unknown, or unimportant. It is also useful when describing a process where the result of the action is important. The agent is not mentioned because the process is more important. “Be” and the subject swap places to form questions. HOW TO FORM All passives use a form of “be” with a past participle. The agent (the thing doing the action) can be introduced with “by,” but the sentence would still make sense without it. SUBJECT 66 “AM / IS / ARE” PAST PARTICIPLE “BY” THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS PASSIVE The present continuous passive is used to refer to ongoing actions. PRESENT CONTINUOUS PRESENT CONTINUOUS PASSIVE FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “AM / IS / ARE” The thing that receives the action. “BEING” Present simple of “be.” PAST PARTICIPLE REST OF SENTENCE The past participle describes what happens to the subject. 67 The passive in the past English uses the passive voice in the past to stress the effect of an action that happened in the past, rather than the cause of that action. See also: Past simple 7 Past continuous 10 Present perfect 11 Past perfect 13 THE PAST SIMPLE PASSIVE The past simple passive is used when referring to a single completed action in the past, focusing on the effect rather than the cause. PAST SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE PASSIVE FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WAS / WERE” The thing that receives the action. 68 PAST PARTICIPLE “Was” is for singular subjects, and “were” is for plural subjects. REST OF SENTENCE The main verb is a past participle. THE PAST CONTINUOUS PASSIVE The past continuous can also be used in the passive voice. It is used to refer to ongoing actions in the past. PAST CONTINUOUS PAST CONTINUOUS PASSIVE FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WAS / WERE” The thing that receives the action. “BEING” “Was” is for singular subjects, and “were” is for plural subjects. PAST PARTICIPLE "BY" + AGENT The main verb is expressed as a past participle. 69 THE PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE The present perfect passive is used to talk about events in the past that still have an effect on the present moment. PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE FURTHER EXAMPLES The subject and verb swap places to form questions. HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “HAS / HAVE” The thing that receives the action. 70 “BEEN” “Been” stays the same no matter what the subject is. PAST PARTICIPLE The main verb is expressed as a past participle. THE PAST PERFECT PASSIVE The past perfect passive is used to refer to events that happened before another event in the past. PAST PERFECT PASSIVE PAST PERFECT FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT The thing that receives the action. "HAD BEEN" “Had been” stays the same with any subject. PAST PARTICIPLE The main verb is expressed as a past participle. 71 The passive in the future English uses the passive voice in the future to stress the effect of an action that will happen in the future, rather than the cause of that action. See also: Future with "will" 18 Future perfect 21 Infinitives and participles 51 THE FUTURE SIMPLE PASSIVE The future simple passive is usually formed with "will" rather than "going to." FUTURE SIMPLE FUTURE SIMPLE PASSIVE It is not known or important who will catch the thief. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WILL BE” The thing that receives the action. 72 PAST PARTICIPLE “Will be” doesn’t change with any subject. REST OF SENTENCE The main verb is a past participle. THE FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE The future perfect passive is used to talk about events that will be finished at some point in the future. FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT The thing that receives the action. “WILL HAVE BEEN” “Will have been” stays the same with any subject. PAST PARTICIPLE The main verb is a past participle. 73 The passive with modals Modal verbs in English can be used in passive forms. As with other passive constructions, the emphasis changes to the object that receives the action. See also: Present perfect simple 11 Passive 24 Modal verbs 56 MODALS IN THE PRESENT PASSIVE Modals in passive forms don’t change. The sentence starts with the modal, then the verb “be” plus the past participle. PRESENT WITH MODAL PRESENT PASSIVE WITH MODAL FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT MODAL VERB The thing that receives the action. 74 Other modal verbs can go here. “BE” PAST PARTICIPLE “Be” stays the same no matter what the subject is. REST OF SENTENCE The main verb is a past participle form. MODALS IN THE PERFECT PASSIVE Modals in perfect tenses can become passive by replacing “have” with “have been.” PERFECT WITH MODAL PERFECT PASSIVE WITH MODAL FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT MODAL VERB The thing that receives the action. Other modal verbs can go here. “HAVE BEEN” PAST PARTICIPLE “Have been” stays the same with any subject. REST OF SENTENCE The main verb is a past participle form. 75 Other passive constructions Many idioms in English use passive forms. Some idioms use standard rules for passive forms, while others are slightly different. See also: Passive voice 45 Reporting verbs 24 Defining relative clauses 81 REPORTING WITH PASSIVES Some passive constructions are used to distance the writer or speaker from the facts. They are often used in academic writing or news reports. “IT” + PASSIVE REPORTING VERB SUBJECT + PASSIVE REPORTING VERB “THERE” + PASSIVE REPORTING VERB FURTHER EXAMPLES 76 “THAT” CLAUSE INFINITIVE CLAUSE “TO BE / TO HAVE BEEN” USING “GET” IN PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS “Get” can sometimes replace “be” in passive sentences. This form is more informal than the passive with “be.” PRESENT SIMPLE PASSIVE PAST SIMPLE PASSIVE FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “GET / GOT” The thing that receives the action. PAST PARTICIPLE A form of “get” is used instead of “be.” REST OF SENTENCE The past participle describes what happens to the subject. 77 Conditional sentences Conditional sentences are used to describe real or hypothetical results of real or hypothetical situations. They can use many different verb forms. See also: Present simple 1 Imperatives 6 Past simple 7 Future with “will” 18 THE ZERO CONDITIONAL RESULT ACTION The zero conditional, also called the “real” conditional, refers to things that are always true. It is used to describe the direct result of an action. “If ” and “when” mean the same thing in the zero conditional. FURTHER EXAMPLES The result clause can go to the beginning of the sentence. The comma is removed in this case. HOW TO FORM “IF / WHEN” ACTION (PRESENT SIMPLE) Present simple describes the action. 78 Comma goes at the end of the “if ” or “when” clause. COMMA RESULT (PRESENT SIMPLE) Result is described using present simple. CONDITIONALS WITH IMPERATIVES Imperatives can be used in conditional sentences. The “if ” clause describes a hypothetical situation and the imperative clause describes what someone should do if that hypothetical situation actually happens. SITUATION SUGGESTED ACTION FURTHER EXAMPLES The order is reversed, so there is no comma. Negative HOW TO FORM “IF” PRESENT SIMPLE “If ” shows that the sentence is conditional. Present simple tense describes the situation. IMPERATIVE COMMA Comma comes at the end of the “if ” clause. The imperative gives the suggested action. 79 THE FIRST CONDITIONAL The first conditional, also called the “future real” conditional, uses “if ” to describe a realistic action that might lead to a future result. LIKELY ACTION FUTURE RESULT HOW TO FORM The first conditional is usually introduced by an “if ” clause, followed by the present simple. The future with “will” expresses the result. “IF” PRESENT SIMPLE “If ” shows that the sentence is conditional. FURTHER EXAMPLES 80 Present simple tense describes suggested action. COMMA FUTURE WITH “WILL” Comma goes at the end of the “if ” clause. Future with “will” describes the result. THE SECOND CONDITIONAL The second conditional, also called the “unreal” conditional, uses “if ” to describe an unlikely or unreal action or event. The described result is also very unlikely. UNLIKELY EVENT UNLIKELY RESULT HOW TO FORM The second conditional is usually introduced by an “if ” clause with a past simple verb. “Would” or “could” plus the base form of the main verb expresses the result. “IF” PAST SIMPLE “If ” shows that the sentence is conditional. Past simple tense describes the action. COMMA “WOULD / COULD” + BASE FORM Comma goes at the end of the “if ” clause. Result is described using “would” + verb. FURTHER EXAMPLES 81 THE THIRD CONDITIONAL The third conditional, also called the “past unreal” conditional, is used to describe unreal situations in the past. It is often used to express regret about the past because the hypothetical situation that it describes is now impossible as a consequence of another past action. UNREAL PAST SITUATION UNREAL PAST RESULT This didn’t happen. So this didn’t happen either. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Might” means this possibly would have happened. “Could” means this possibly would have happened. HOW TO FORM “IF” “HAD” + PAST PARTICIPLE The “if “ clause is the unreal past condition. 82 “WOULD / COULD / MIGHT” Using different modals changes the certainty of the imagined result. “HAVE” + PAST PARTICIPLE The conditional clause is the unreal result. THE MIXED CONDITIONAL SECOND CONDITIONAL THIRD CONDITIONAL The second conditional is used to talk about hypothetical situations in the present. The third conditional is used to talk about hypothetical situations in the past. PAST SIMPLE PAST PERFECT “WOULD” + INFINITIVE “WOULD” + “HAVE” + PAST PARTICIPLE MIXED CONDITIONAL Mixed conditionals are usually used to talk about hypothetical present reults of unreal past situations. Unreal past. Unreal present. FURTHER EXAMPLES Mixed conditionals are often used to express regret. Mixed conditionals refer to future situations when used with future time markers. 83 Other conditional sentences English allows for some variations in conditional sentence structures. These give more information about the context of the conditional. See also: Future with “will” 18 Modal verbs 56 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES WITH MODAL VERBS First, second, and third conditional sentences can use different modal verbs in their “result” clauses. These can be used to express uncertainty, possibility, or obligation, amongst other things. FIRST CONDITIONAL In the first conditional, “will” can be replaced by a variety of modal verbs to talk about different ideas. Different modal verbs can go here. SECOND CONDITIONAL In the second conditional, “would” can be replaced by “could” or “might” to express ability, possibility, or uncertainty. THIRD CONDITIONAL In the third conditional, “would” can be replaced by “could” or “might” to express ability, possibility, or uncertainty. 84 FIRST CONDITIONAL WITH “UNLESS” “Unless” can be used instead of “if ” in conditional sentences. “Unless” means “if… not,” so the future result depends on the suggested action not happening. FURTHER EXAMPLES FORMAL THIRD CONDITIONAL The third conditional can be made more formal by swapping “had” with the subject and dropping “if.” FURTHER EXAMPLES 85 Conditional sentences overview TYPES OF CONDITIONAL The zero conditional is used to talk about situations that will always happen. It is used to talk about general truths. PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE The second conditional is used to talk about hypothetical situations that are very unlikely to happen, but are usually still possible. PAST SIMPLE “WOULD” + BASE FORM USING COMMAS IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES When the action comes before the result, a comma separates the two clauses of the conditional sentence. However, when the result comes first, no comma is used. A comma is used if the action comes first. The result can come at the beginning of the sentence. 86 “If ” or “when” can sit between the action and result, without a comma. There are four types of conditional sentences. The zero conditional refers to real situations, but the first, second, and third conditionals all refer to hypothetical situations. The first conditional is used to talk about hypothetical situations that are likely to happen. See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 7 Past perfect simple 13 Modal verbs 56 PRESENT SIMPLE “WILL” + BASE FORM The third conditional is used to talk about hypothetical situations that definitely will not happen. The result is no longer possible because of the imaginary cause in the past. PAST PERFECT “WOULD” + “HAVE” + PAST PARTICIPLE COMMON MISTAKES USING OTHER TENSES IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES “Will,” “would,” and “would have” should not be used in the “if ” clause when forming conditional sentences. “Will” doesn’t go in the “if ” clause. “Would” doesn’t go in the “if ” clause. “Would have” doesn’t go in the “if ” clause. 87 Future possibilities There are many ways to talk about imaginary future situations. Different structures can be used to indicate whether a situation is likely or unlikely. See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 7 Past perfect simple 13 LIKELY FUTURE POSSIBILITIES “What if ” or “suppose” followed by the present tense can be used to express a future outcome that is likely to happen. “What if ” means “what would happen if an imagined situation occurred?” Present tense shows the speaker believes this is likely to happen. “Suppose” refers to the consequences of an imagined situation. FURTHER EXAMPLES UNLIKELY FUTURE POSSIBILITIES “What if ” or “suppose” followed by the past simple can be used to express a future outcome that is possible, but unlikely to happen. FURTHER EXAMPLES 88 The past tense shows the speaker thinks this is unlikely to happen. THINGS THAT COULD HAVE HAPPENED “What if ” and “suppose” can also be used with the past perfect to describe situations that were possible in the past, but that didn’t happen, or might not have happened. The past perfect shows that this didn’t happen, but it was possible. FURTHER EXAMPLES IN CASE “In case” or “just in case” plus the present tense are used to show planning for a possible future situation. Present tense. FURTHER EXAMPLES “Just” is added to “in case” to talk about preparation for a situation that is less likely. 89 Wishes and regrets English uses the verb “wish” to talk about present and past regrets. The tense of the verb that follows “wish” affects the meaning of the sentence. See also: Past simple 7 Past perfect simple 13 Modal verbs 56 “WISH” AND PAST SIMPLE “Wish” is used with the past simple to express regrets and desires about the present, which could still happen or come true. The past simple is used here to talk about the present. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WISH” SUBJECT “Wish” or “wishes,” depending on the subject. 90 PAST SIMPLE REST OF SENTENCE The past simple expresses wishes or regrets about the present. “WISH” AND PAST PERFECT “Wish” is used with the past perfect to talk about regrets about the past. This form is used when it is too late for the wish to come true. The past perfect is used to talk about a regret in the past. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “WISH” SUBJECT “Wish” or “wishes,” depending on the subject. PAST PERFECT REST OF SENTENCE The past perfect expresses regrets about the past. 91 “WISH” FOR FUTURE HOPES “Wish” can also be used to talk about hopes for the future. “Wish” with “could” is usually used when someone is expressing a desire to do something themselves. “Wish” with “would” is used when someone is expressing a desire for someone else to do something. FURTHER EXAMPLES 92 [I would like to be able to move somewhere warmer.] [She wants her teacher to give out less homework in the future.] ANOTHER WAY TO SAY “I WISH” PRESENT REGRETS Stronger regrets about the present can be expressed by using “if only” and the past simple. PAST REGRETS Stronger regrets about the past can be expressed by using “if only” and the past perfect. FURTHER EXAMPLES PAST REGRETS “Should have” or “ought to have” are used to express regret that something did or didn’t happen in the past. Past participle. FURTHER EXAMPLES The negative form “ought not to have“ is rarely used in UK English and never used in US English. 93 Forming questions If a statement uses “be” or an auxiliary verb, its question form is made by inverting that verb and the subject. Any other question is formed by adding “do” or “does.” See also: Present simple 1 Types of verbs 49 Modal verbs 56 QUESTIONS WITH “BE” To make a question using the verb “be,” the verb goes before the subject. In a statement, the subject comes before the verb. In a question, the verb comes before the subject. The subject comes after the verb. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM “BE” 94 SUBJECT REST OF SENTENCE QUESTIONS WITH “BE” IN THE PAST To ask questions about the past using the verb “be,” the subject and verb swap places. The subject and “was / were” swap places. FURTHER EXAMPLES QUESTIONS WITH AUXILIARY VERBS For questions including an auxiliary verb, such as “have,” “will,” and “could,” the subject and the auxiliary verb swap places. The main verb stays where it is. Auxiliary comes first. FURTHER EXAMPLES Main verb doesn’t move. If a question has more than one auxiliary verb, only the first one moves. 95 QUESTIONS WITH “DO” AND “DOES” Questions in the present simple without the verb “be” or an auxiliary verb start with “do” or “does” and have the main verb in its base form. The subject and main verb do not swap around. “Do” or “does” goes at the start. The main verb changes to its base form. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM “DO / DOES” 96 SUBJECT BASE FORM OF VERB REST OF SENTENCE QUESTIONS WITH “DID” Questions in the past simple without the verb “be” or an auxiliary verb start with “did” and have the main verb in its base form. The subject and main verb do not swap places. Past simple statement. “Did” is the past simple form of “do.” The main verb is in its base form. FURTHER EXAMPLES COMMON MISTAKES BASE FORMS IN QUESTIONS WITH “DO” When questions are formed with the auxiliary verb “do,” the main verb must be in the base form. 97 Question words Open questions are questions that do not have simple “yes” or “no” answers. In English, they are formed by using question words. See also: Forming questions 34 Prepositions of time 107 QUESTION WORDS There are nine common question words in English. What is used to ask questions about things. Why is used to ask for reasons. When is used to ask questions about time. Where is used to ask about places or directions. Whom is a formal version of “who,” that can only be used as an object of a question. Who is used to ask about people. 98 How is used to ask about a condition, or the way something is done. How can also be used with an adjective or an adverb to ask about the degree to which the adjective applies. Which is used to ask someone to specify between two or more named things. Whose is used to ask who is the owner of something. “WHAT / WHICH” “What” is used when the question is general. “Which” is used when there are two or more possibilities in the question. There are no choices in the question. The question includes a choice of possible answers. FURTHER EXAMPLES “HOW OFTEN” AND “WHEN” “How often” is used to ask about the frequency with which someone does an activity. “When” is used to ask about the specific time that they do something. “How often” asks about frequency. “When” asks about the specific time something happens. FURTHER EXAMPLES 99 Open questions Open questions can’t be answered with “yes” or “no.” They are formed differently depending on the main verb of the question. See also: Present simple 1 Question words 35 Verbs 49 OPEN QUESTIONS WITH “BE” If the main verb of the sentence is “be,” the question word goes at the beginning of the question and the form of “be” goes straight after it. The question is “open” because it can’t be answered “yes” or “no.” “Be” comes after the question word. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM QUESTION WORD 100 “BE” REST OF SENTENCE OPEN QUESTIONS WITH OTHER VERBS For all questions except those formed with “be,” the question word is followed by an auxiliary verb. If there is already an auxiliary verb in the sentence, it is also used in the question. If there is no auxiliary verb, a form of “do” is added. This auxiliary verb is already in the sentence, so it stays in the question. Auxiliary “do” follows the question word. The question word goes at the beginning. The main verb changes to its base form. HOW TO FORM QUESTION WORD AUXILIARY VERB SUBJECT MAIN VERB FURTHER EXAMPLES 101 Object and subject questions There are two kinds of question: object questions and subject questions. They are formed in different ways and are used to ask about different things. See also: Present simple 1 Types of verbs 49 Verbs with objects 53 OBJECT QUESTIONS Object Use object questions to ask who received an action, not who did the action. They are called object questions because the question word is the object of the main verb. Subject Auxiliary The answer is the object of the question. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM OBJECT Different question words can be used here. 102 AUXILIARY SUBJECT The auxiliary tells you whether the question is talking about the past or the present. VERB SUBJECT QUESTIONS Question doesn’t use “did.” Subject questions are used to ask who did an action. They are called subject questions because the question word is the subject of the main verb. They do not use the auxiliary verb “do.” The answer is the subject of the question. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM “Who” and “what” are the most common pronouns used in subject questions. SUBJECT VERB OBJECT COMMON MISTAKES OBJECT AND SUBJECT QUESTIONS Object questions must use a form of the auxiliary “do.” “Did” is the auxiliary verb in this object question. Do not use inversion to form object questions. Subject questions do not use an auxiliary verb and the word order stays the same as in a normal statement. The word order stays the same as a normal statement. “Do” is only used as an auxiliary verb when forming object questions. 103 Indirect questions Indirect questions are more polite than direct questions. They are very common in formal spoken English, particularly when asking for information. See also: Present simple 1 Forming questions 34 Types of verbs 49 INDIRECT OPEN QUESTIONS Indirect questions often start with a polite opening phrase. After the question word, the word order in indirect questions is the same as in positive statements. The verb comes after the subject. Indirect questions start with an opening phrase. FURTHER EXAMPLES Indirect questions leave out the auxiliary verb “do.” HOW TO FORM OPENING PHRASE A polite opening phrase comes first. 104 QUESTION WORD SUBJECT VERB INDIRECT CLOSED QUESTIONS Indirect closed questions are formed using “if ” or “whether.” In this context, “if ” and “whether” mean the same thing. Polite opening phrase The subject comes before the verb. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM OPENING PHRASE “IF / WHETHER” SUBJECT VERB REST OF SENTENCE A polite opening phrase comes first. COMMON MISTAKES WORD ORDER WITH INDIRECT QUESTIONS When a question has an opening phrase, the word order in indirect questions is the same as in a statement. There is no inversion, and “do” is not added. 105 Question tags In spoken English, small questions are often added to the ends of sentences. These are called question tags, and they are most often used to invite someone to agree. See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 7 Types of verbs 49 Modal verbs 56 QUESTION TAGS USING “BE” The simplest question tags use the verb “be” with a pronoun matching the subject of the sentence. STATEMENT QUESTION TAG FURTHER EXAMPLES For statements with “I,” “aren’t I?” is used in the negative question tag, not “amn’t I?” TIP Question tags are mostly used in informal situations. HOW TO FORM A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag, and a negative statement is followed by a positive question tag. POSITIVE STATEMENT Verb is positive. NEGATIVE STATEMENT Verb is negative. 106 NEGATIVE QUESTION TAG Question tag uses negative form of verb. POSITIVE QUESTION TAG Question tag uses positive form of verb. QUESTION TAGS USING AUXILIARY VERBS For most verbs other than “be,” a present simple statement is followed by a question tag with “do” or “does.” PRESENT SIMPLE QUESTION TAG PAST SIMPLE QUESTION TAG A past simple statement is followed by a question tag with “did.” A statement with an auxiliary verb is followed by a question tag with the same auxiliary verb. Statements with modal verbs such as “could,” “would,” and “should” are followed by question tags that use the same modal verb. AUXILIARY VERB Auxiliary verb MODAL VERB MAIN VERB QUESTION TAG Main verb describes the action. Question tag uses the same auxiliary verb. QUESTION TAG INTONATION WITH QUESTION TAGS If the intonation goes up at the end of the question tag, it is a question requiring an answer. If the intonation goes down at the end of a question tag, the speaker is just inviting the listener to agree. 107 Short questions Short questions are a way of showing interest during conversation. They’re used to keep conversation going, rather than to ask for new information. See also: Present simple 1 Forming quetsions 34 Types of verbs 49 SHORT QUESTIONS Short questions must be in the same tense as the statement they’re responding to. If the statement is positive, the short question should be positive and vice versa. The subject from the statement is replaced with the relevant pronoun. For statements using “be,” the short question uses the same form of “be.” For other verbs, a form of “do” is used. FURTHER EXAMPLES “I am” becomes “are you” because it is directed back at the speaker. The negative is used to match the statement. 108 The past simple of “do” is used to match “went,” which is the past simple of “go.” The third person form “does” is used to match “studies.” SHORT QUESTIONS WITH AUXILIARY VERBS If a statement contains an auxiliary verb, including modal verbs, that auxiliary verb is repeated in the short question. Here, “have” is an auxiliary verb forming the present perfect. FURTHER EXAMPLES SHORT QUESTIONS IN US ENGLISH In US English, short questions are sometimes not inverted. The subject and verb are not inverted, but this is said with a rising intonation. 109 Short answers When answering closed questions in English, some words can often be left out to make responses shorter. These short answers are often used in spoken English. See also: Present simple 1 Types of verbs 49 Modal verbs 56 “There” 85 SHORT ANSWERS When the question uses the verb “be,” “be” is used in the same tense in the short answer. When the question uses the auxilary verb “do,” “do” is used in the same tense in the short answer. Question uses “be.” “A doctor” doesn’t need to be repeated in the answer. FURTHER EXAMPLES 110 Question uses “do.” “Like coffee” doesn’t need to be repeated in the answer. SHORT ANSWERS WITH AUXILIARY VERBS When the question uses an auxiliary verb, including modal verbs, the same auxiliary verb is used in the short answer. FURTHER EXAMPLES COMMON MISTAKES SHORT ANSWERS WITH AUXILIARY VERBS If a question uses an auxiliary verb, including modal verbs, it must be used in the short answer. The main verb should not be used at all. SHORT ANSWERS WITH “THERE” When the question uses “there,” it is also used in the answer. Short for: “No, there isn’t a hotel in the town.” 111 Questions overview FORMING QUESTIONS Questions in English are formed either by swapping the positions of the subject and the verb, or by using the auxiliary verb “do.” The subject and “be” swap places. SUBJECT AND OBJECT QUESTIONS Questions in English are formed differently depending on whether they are asking who or what did an action or who or what received an action. STATEMENT Subject Subject questions ask who did an action. The question word is the subject of the main verb. They do not use the auxiliary verb “do.” SUBJECT QUESTION Question doesn’t use “did.” 112 Object Object questions ask who received an action. The question word is the object of the question. They usually use the auxiliary verb “do.” OBJECT QUESTION Question uses “did.” Questions in English are formed in different ways depending on the main verb. Open and closed questions are formed differently, and spoken with different intonation. The subject and the auxiliary verb swap places. See also: Forming questions 34 Question words 35 Question tags 39 Short questions 40 A form of “do” goes before the subject. The main verb goes in its base form. QUESTION TAGS AND SHORT QUESTIONS Question tags are added to the end of a question, usually to ask someone to agree with you. A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag, and vice versa. Short questions are used to show that someone is listening to the speaker. They are positive for positive statements and negative for negative statements. CLOSED AND OPEN QUESTIONS Closed questions can only be answered with “yes” or “no.” When they are spoken, the voice often rises at the end of the question. Open questions are formed by adding question words to the start of the question. They can be answered in many different ways. The tone of the speaker’s voice usually falls at the end of open questions. 113 Reported speech The words that people say are called direct speech. Reported speech is often used to describe what someone said at an earlier point in time. See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 7 Types of verbs 49 REPORTED SPEECH Direct speech uses the present simple. The main verb in reported speech is usually “said.” The reported verb is usually in a different tense from the direct speech. Reported speech uses the past simple for the reported verb. “That” is usually added after “said” in reported speech. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM Can be left out. SUBJECT The person who said the direct speech. 114 “THAT” “SAID” Past simple of “say.” The subject of the direct speech. “I” becomes “he.” SUBJECT PAST SIMPLE REST OF SENTENCE Present simple in direct speech becomes past simple in reported speech. “TELL” IN REPORTED SPEECH In reported speech, “tell” can also be used as the main verb. It must be followed by an object, which shows who someone is talking to. “Say” does not need to be followed by an object. “Tell” must be followed by an object. FURTHER EXAMPLES “That” can also be left out in reported speech with “told.” COMMON MISTAKES “SAY” AND “TELL” IN REPORTED SPEECH “Told” must have an object. “Said” cannot have an object. 115 Tenses in reported speech In reported speech, the reported verb usually “goes back” a tense. Time and place references and pronouns sometimes also change. See also: Present continuous 4 Past continuous 10 Past perfect simple 13 Modal verbs 56 REPORTED SPEECH IN DIFFERENT TENSES The tense used in reported speech is usually one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech. PRESENT CONTINUOUS PAST CONTINUOUS PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT FUTURE WITH “WILL” MODAL VERB “WOULD” MODAL VERB “CAN” MODAL VERB “COULD” 116 REPORTED SPEECH AND THE PAST SIMPLE The past simple in direct speech can either stay as the past simple or change to the past perfect in reported speech. The meaning is the same. DIRECT SPEECH WITH PAST SIMPLE REPORTED SPEECH WITH PAST SIMPLE OR PAST PERFECT REPORTED SPEECH WITHOUT CHANGE OF TENSE If the situation described is ongoing, the verb does not have to change tense in reported speech. Amelia still likes eating cake. FURTHER EXAMPLES 117 TIME AND PLACE REFERENCES If speech is reported some time after it was said, words used to talk about times and places may need to change. The time reference is “yesterday” in direct speech. The time reference is “the day before” in reported speech. FURTHER EXAMPLES 118 OTHER CHANGES IN REPORTED SPEECH In reported speech, pronouns may also need to be changed to ensure they refer to the correct person or thing. “These” is replaced by the more distant “those.” “This” is replaced by the more distant “that.” FURTHER EXAMPLES 119 Reporting verbs In reported speech, “said” can be replaced with a wide variety of verbs that give people more information about how someone said something. See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 7 Types of verbs 49 REPORTING VERBS WITH “THAT” “Say” and “tell” do not give any information about the speaker’s manner. They can be replaced with other verbs that suggest the speaker’s mood or reason for speaking. Shows unwillingness on the part of the speaker. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT REPORTING VERB (PAST TENSE) Verb introduces reported speech and gives more information about it. 120 “THAT” PAST TENSE Verb is followed by “that.” Reported speech changes tense as usual. REPORTING VERBS WITH OBJECT AND INFINITIVE Some reporting verbs are followed by an object and an infinitive. English often uses these verbs to report orders, advice, and instructions. Reporting verb Object Infinitive FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT REPORTING VERB (PAST TENSE) The object shows who was being spoken to. OBJEC T INFINITIVE REST OF SENTENCE The infinitive usually expresses an order, instruction, or piece of advice. 121 Reported speech with negatives Negatives in reported speech are formed in the same way as negatives in direct speech. “Not” is used with the auxiliary, or with the main verb if there is no auxiliary. REPORTING NEGATIVE AUXILIARIES When the direct speech is negative using “do not,” “is not,” and “has not,” “do,” “is,” or “has” changes tense, rather than the main verb. Present simple negative. Past simple negative. FURTHER EXAMPLES 122 See also: Present simple negative 2 Past simple negative 8 Types of verbs 49 REPORTING OTHER VERBS WITH NEGATIVES If a reporting verb is followed by an object and an infinitive, “not” goes between the object and the infinitive to form the negative. “Not” makes the reported speech negative. FURTHER EXAMPLES 123 Reported questions Reported questions are used to describe questions that someone has asked. Direct questions and reported questions use different word orders. See also: Forming questions 34 Open questions 36 Types of verbs 49 REPORTED OPEN QUESTIONS Direct open questions are reported by swapping the order of the subject and the verb. The subject comes before the verb in reported questions. The tense in reported questions usually moves one tense back from the tense in direct questions. FURTHER EXAMPLES An object can be included to say who was asked the original question. The object of the reporting verb can be left out. HOW TO FORM SUBJECT REPORTING VERB The main verb in reported questions is usually “ask.” 124 The object can be left out. OBJEC T QUESTION WORD The subject comes before the verb in reported questions. SUBJECT VERB The tense moves one tense back from direct speech. REPORTING QUESTIONS WITH “DO” When a direct question uses the verb “do,” this is left out of reported questions. Reported questions leave out the auxiliary verb “do.” The past form of the verb is usually used. FURTHER EXAMPLES The tense doesn’t always change. COMMON MISTAKES WORD ORDER IN REPORTED QUESTIONS It is incorrect to swap the verb and object in reported questions. 125 REPORTED CLOSED QUESTIONS If the answer to a question in direct speech is “yes” or “no,” “if ” or “whether” is used to report the question. “Whether” is more formal than “if.” Direct question. Reported question uses “if ” or “whether.” FURTHER EXAMPLES In reported questions with “if ” and “whether,” the object after “asked” can be left out. Reported questions with “if ” and “whether” leave out the auxiliary verb “do.” HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “ASKED” The object can be left out. 126 OBJEC T “IF / WHETHER” SUBJECT VERB REST OF SENTENCE “If ” and “whether” mean the same thing, but “whether” is more formal. REPORTING QUESTIONS WITH “OR” “If ” or “whether” can also be used to report questions that use “or” in direct speech. The verb changes tense. FURTHER EXAMPLES 127 Reported speech overview CHANGING REFERENCES IN REPORTED SPEECH Certain words have variable reference, which means their meaning is context-dependent. In order to retain the meaning of the direct speech, reported speech usually revises tenses, pronouns, and time references. TENSE The tense usually moves back. REPORTING VERBS IN THE PRESENT TENSE The reporting verb can be in the present tense. In this case, the tense of the sentence doesn’t change. Reporting verb is in the present tense. The main verb doesn’t change tense. Using “tell” in the present tense can be more emphatic than “say.” 128 When forming reported speech from direct speech, some words change in order to keep the meaning consistent. Other words stay the same. PRONOUNS See also: Present simple 1 Past simple 7 Tenses in reported speech 44 Modal verbs 56 Personal pronouns 77 TIME REFERENCES “Tomorrow” changes to “the next day” to keep the meaning the same. “My” changes to “her” to refer back to the first speaker. REPORTING MODAL VERBS Most modal verbs, except for “will” and “can,” behave differently from other verbs. No matter what the tense of the direct speech, they don’t change in reported speech. The modal verb is the same as in direct speech. The reported verb also doesn’t change from direct speech. 129 Types of verbs Verbs can be described as main verbs or auxiliary verbs. Main verbs describe actions, occurrences, or states of being. Auxiliary verbs modify the meaning of main verbs. See also: Present perfect simple 11 Modal verbs 56 MAIN VERBS “Play” is the main verb that describes an action. Main verbs are the most important verbs in a sentence. They can describe actions or states, or they can be used to link a subject to a description. AUXILIARY VERBS Auxiliary verbs are used with main verbs to modify their meaning. Auxiliary verbs are used very frequently to form different tenses. PRESENT PERFECT SUBJECT AUXILIARY VERB PARTICIPLE OBJECT “Has” is an auxiliary verb here. It’s being used to form the present perfect. SUBJECT The auxiliary verb “do” is used to make questions and negatives of statements that don’t already have an auxiliary verb. Modal verbs are also auxiliary verbs. They modify the meaning of the main verb, expressing various notions such as possibility or obligation. 130 AUXILIARY VERB SUBJECT AUXILIARY VERB SUBJECT MODAL VERB MAIN VERB OBJECT MAIN VERB OBJECT MAIN VERB OBJECT LINKING VERBS Linking verbs express a state of being or becoming. They link a subject to a complement, which renames or describes the subject. Subject Complement FURTHER EXAMPLES TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS Some verbs take an object, which is a noun or phrase that receives the action of the verb. Verbs which take an object are known as transitive verbs. Some verbs never take an object. These verbs are known as intransitive verbs. SUBJECT VERB SUBJECT VERB OBJECT “Read” can be used with or without an object. Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive. Some verbs can take two objects, a direct object and an indirect object. SUBJECT VERB SUBJECT VERB The indirect object benefits from the action. OBJEC T INDIRECT OBJECT DIRECT OBJECT The direct object is what the verb “gave” refers to. 131 Action and state verbs Verbs that describe actions or events are known as “action” or “dynamic” verbs, whereas those that describe states are known as “state” or “stative” verbs. See also: Present simple 1 Present continuous 4 Past simple 7 Past continuous 10 ACTION AND STATE VERBS Action verbs usually describe what people or things do. State verbs usually say how things are or how someone feels. ACTION VERB Action verbs can be used in simple forms and continuous forms. STATE VERB State verbs are not usually used in the continuous form. FURTHER EXAMPLES COMMON MISTAKES USING STATE VERBS IN CONTINUOUS TENSES Most state verbs cannot be used in continuous forms. State verbs are only usually used in the simple form. State verbs can’t usually be used in continuous forms. 132 USING STATE VERBS IN CONTINUOUS FORMS Some verbs can be both action and state verbs. When these verbs are describing an action, they can be used in continuous forms. ACTION STATE A few state verbs can be used in continuous forms, keeping their stative meaning. The use of a continuous form emphasizes a change, development, or temporary situation. CONTINUOUS FORM SIMPLE FORM 133 Infinitives and participles Infinitives and participles are forms of verbs that are rarely used on their own, but are important when making other forms or constructions. See also: Present continuous 4 Present perfect simple 11 INFINITIVES The infinitive is the simplest form of the verb. English verbs have two types of infinitive. VERB “TO” Sometimes the infinitive is formed with “to” plus the verb. This is sometimes known as a “full” or “to” infinitive. “ TO” When the infinitive is formed without “to,” it is known as the base or simple form, or the bare infinitive. BASE FORM PRESENT PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS Present participles and gerunds are formed by adding “-ing” to the base form of the verb. They are spelled the same, but they perform different functions in a sentence. Present participles are most commonly used with auxiliary verbs to form continuous tenses. SUBJECT PRESENT CONTINUOUS AUXILIARY VERB PRESENT PRINCIPLE OBJECT REST OF SENTENCE The present participle is being used to make the past continuous. Gerunds are verbs that are used as nouns. They are sometimes known as verbal nouns. SUBJECT VERB “Playing” is a gerund here. Along with “tennis,” it forms the subject of the sentence. 134 COMPLEMENT PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND SPELLING RULES All present participles and gerunds are formed by adding “-ing” to the base form of the verb. The spelling of some base forms changes slightly before adding “-ing.” Last letters are “-ie.” Last letter is a silent “-e.” Main verb. “-ing” is added to form regular present participles. The “-e” is left out and “-ing” is added. “-ie” changes to “y.” Last letters are consonant–vowel–consonant and the final syllable is stressed. The last letter doubles, unless it’s “w,” “x,” or “y.” FURTHER EXAMPLES The last letter is not doubled because "per" is not stressed. The last letter is doubled because the pattern is consonant–vowel–consonant. The last letter of the verb doesn't double if it’s “y.” The “-e” is dropped from the verb. 135 PAST PARTICIPLES Past participles are used with auxiliary verbs to form perfect simple tenses, such as the present perfect simple. SUBJECT PRESENT PERFECT AUXILIARY VERB PAST PARTICIPLE OBJECT REST OF SENTENCE SPELLING RULES FOR PAST PARTICIPLES Regular past participles are made with the base form of the verb plus “-ed.” The spelling of some of these base forms changes a bit before adding “-ed.” Last letter is “-e.” For many regular verbs, “-ed” is added. FURTHER EXAMPLES 136 “-d” is added. Last letters are a consonant and a “-y.” The “-y” is replaced with “-ied.” Last letters are consonant–vowel–consonant and the final syllable is stressed. The last consonant is doubled and “-ed” is added. IRREGULAR PAST PARTICIPLES Many verbs in English have irregular past participle forms. They often look quite different from their base form. PAST PARTICIPLE FURTHER EXAMPLES BASE FORM PAST PARTICIPLE SAMPLE SENTENCE 137 Verb patterns Some verbs in English can only go with a gerund or an infinitive. Some verbs can go with either. These verbs often describe wishes, plans, or feelings. See also: Types of verbs 49 Infinitives and participles 51 VERBS WITH INFINITIVES VERB English uses the infinitive with “to” after certain verbs that describe someone’s plans or wishes to do an activity. Main verb describes a plan or wish to do an activity. FURTHER EXAMPLES The infinitive doesn’t change no matter what the tense of the main verb is. OTHER VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES 138 INFINITIVE Infinitive with “to” describes the activity. VERBS WITH GERUNDS English uses gerunds after certain verbs that say how a person feels about an activity. GERUND VERB The verb describes feelings about an activity. The word for the activity is in gerund form. FURTHER EXAMPLES OTHER VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS 139 VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND (NO CHANGE IN MEANING) Some verbs can be followed by a gerund (an “-ing” form) or a “to” infinitive, with little or no change in meaning. You can often use both forms interchangeably. FURTHER EXAMPLES OTHER VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND (NO CHANGE IN MEANING) VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND (NO CHANGE IN MEANING) 140 VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND (CHANGE IN MEANING) Some verbs change their meaning depending on the form of the verb that follows them. The infinitive is used to describe the purpose of the main verb’s action. The gerund is often used to talk about the action which is happening around the same time as the main verb’s action. FURTHER EXAMPLES VERB + INFINITIVE VERB + GERUND 141 Verb patterns with objects Some verbs, known as transitive verbs, have objects. When these verbs are followed by infinitives or gerunds, the object must come between the verb and the infinitive or gerund. See also: Types of verbs 49 Infinitives and participles 51 VERB WITH OBJECT AND INFINITIVE Some verbs that are followed by an infinitive must also have an object before that infinitive. VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE HOW TO FORM SUBJECT FURTHER EXAMPLES 142 VERB OBJECT INFINITIVE REST OF SENTENCE COMMON MISTAKES VERB PATTERNS WITH “WANT” When the verb “want” is followed by an object and an infinitive, it is not formed with a “that” clause. “Want” should be followed by an object and infinitive. “Want” can’t be followed by a “that” clause. VERB + OBJECT + GERUND PATTERNS Some verbs that are followed by a gerund must also have an object before that gerund. VERB + OBJECT + GERUND HOW TO FORM SUBJECT VERB OBJECT GERUND REST OF SENTENCE FURTHER EXAMPLES 143 DOUBLE OBJECT VERBS The direct object is the person or thing that an action happens to. The indirect object receives the same action. If the indirect object is the focus of the sentence, it comes after the direct object plus “to” or “for.” DIRECT OBJECT INDIRECT OBJECT The preposition is dropped when the order of the objects is reversed. FURTHER EXAMPLES USING DOUBLE OBJECT VERBS WITH PRONOUNS If the direct object is a pronoun, it must come before the indirect object. If the indirect object is a pronoun, it can come before or after the direct object. FURTHER EXAMPLES 144 Verb patterns with prepositions Some verb patterns include prepositions. Prepositions cannot be followed by infinitives, so these verb patterns only use gerunds. See also: Infinitives and participles 51 Verb patterns 52 Prepositions 105 VERB WITH PREPOSITION AND GERUND If a preposition is followed by a verb, the verb must be a gerund (the “-ing” form). Gerund FURTHER EXAMPLES VERB WITH OBJECT, PREPOSITION, AND GERUND If a verb takes an object, that object must come between the verb and the preposition. FURTHER EXAMPLES 145 Phrasal verbs Some verbs in English have two or more words in them, and usually have a new meaning when they are used together. These are called phrasal verbs. See also: Verb patterns with objects 53 Prepositions 105 Separable phrasal verbs R20 Inseparable phrasal verbs R21 PHRASAL VERBS Phrasal verbs have a verb plus one or more particles (prepositions or adverbs.) The particle often changes the usual meaning of the verb. PHRASAL VERB Particle Verb HOW TO FORM The verb takes the third person “-s.” The particle always comes after the verb. The verb changes form to match the subject as usual. The particle never changes form. This is wrong. The particle should never change. This is wrong. The particle should come after the verb. FURTHER EXAMPLES Negatives are formed in the usual way. Questions are formed in the usual way. 146 PHRASAL VERBS IN DIFFERENT TENSES When phrasal verbs are used in different tenses, the verb changes, but the particle remains the same. The particle never changes. PRESENT SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUS FUTURE WITH “WILL” FURTHER EXAMPLES 147 SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS If a phrasal verb has a direct object, it can sometimes go between the verb and the particle. Phrasal verbs that do this are called “separable” phrasal verbs. The object can go after the particle. The object can also go between the verb and the particle. FURTHER EXAMPLES COMMON MISTAKES SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS If the direct object of a separable phrasal verb is a pronoun, it must go between the verb and the particle. 148 Pronoun The pronoun cannot go at the end of the sentence. INSEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated. The object must always come after the particle; it can never sit between the particle and the verb. This is true whether the object is a noun or a pronoun. The verb and the particle must stay together. This is wrong. The object can’t sit between the verb and the particle. FURTHER EXAMPLES 149 THREE-WORD PHRASAL VERBS Three-word phrasal verbs have a verb, a particle, and a preposition. The particle and preposition often change the usual meaning of the verb. VERB + PARTICLE + PREPOSITION The verb changes with the subject. The particle and preposition never change form. INTONATION In spoken English, the stress is on the middle word of a three-word phrasal verb. FURTHER EXAMPLES TIP Most, but not all, three-word phrasal verbs are inseparable. “GET BACK FROM” “Get back from” can be separable or inseparable depending on the context. When “get back from” means “to return from,” it is always inseparable. When “get back from” means “to retrieve from” it is separable. The object must go between “get” and “back.” 150 NOUNS BASED ON PHRASAL VERBS Some nouns are made from phrasal verbs, often formed by joining the verb and the particle together. When these words are spoken, the stress is usually on the verb. Verb Particle Stress is on the first syllable. Sometimes, the noun is formed by putting the particle in front of the verb. In these cases, the spoken stress is usually on the particle. Stress is on the first syllable. FURTHER EXAMPLES 151 Modal verbs Modal verbs are very common in English. They are used to talk about a variety of things, particularly possibilities, obligations, and deductions. USES OF MODAL VERBS English has many modal verbs. Each modal verb can can be used in several different contexts. ABILITY PERMISSION REQUESTS OFFERS SUGGESTIONS AND ADVICE OBLIGATION LOGICAL DEDUCTIONS 152 See also: Present simple negative 2 Forming questions 34 Types of verbs 49 MODAL VERB FORMATIONS Modal verbs share certain characteristics. They don’t change form to match the subject, and they are always followed by a main verb in its base form. Their question and negative forms are made without “do.” SUBJECT MODAL VERB The modal verb stays the same for any subject. BASE FORM REST OF SENTENCE The main verb stays in its base form. Negatives are formed by adding “not” between the modal verb and main verb. Questions are usually formed by swapping the subject and the modal verb. “Ought to” and “have to” are exceptions because they use “to” before the base form. “Ought to” is a more formal way of saying “should,” and “have to” means “must.” They both act like normal verbs. 153 Ability “Can” is a modal verb that describes what someone is able to do. It is used in different forms to describe past and present abilities. See also: Present simple 1 Future with “will” 18 “CAN / CANNOT / CAN’T” “Can” goes between the subject and the main verb. The verb after “can” goes in its base form. Base form of verb. “Can” is always the same. It doesn’t change with the subject. The negative form of “can” is “cannot” or “can’t.” TIP The long negative form “cannot” is always spelled as one word, not two words. The more common, short form of “cannot.” FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT 154 “CAN / CANNOT / CAN’T” BASE FORM OBJECT “COULD” FOR PAST ABILITIES “Could” is the past form of “can” and is used to talk about an ability in the past. “When” plus a time setting can be used to say when someone had the ability. Describes a present ability. The time frame can be set with a phrase about an age, day, or year. Describes a past ability. FURTHER EXAMPLES Negative form. “CAN” IN THE FUTURE It is not grammatically possible to talk about the future using “can.” “Will be able to” is used instead. “Will can” is incorrect. The negative is formed with “not able to” or “unable to.” “Will be unable to” can also be used, but it’s less common. 155 Permission, requests, and offers “Can,” “could,” and “may” are used to ask permission to do something, or to ask someone to do something for you. They can also be used to offer to help someone. ASKING PERMISSION AND MAKING REQUESTS “Can” is the most common modal verb used to ask permission or to make a request. “Please” is used in polite requests. FURTHER EXAMPLES 156 Informal answers use “can” as well. Negative answers can be more polite by adding “I’m sorry” or “I’m afraid.” “Could” replaces “can” for more formal situations, such as in business or to talk to strangers. “May” can also be used in formal situations. See also: Types of verbs 49 Modal verbs 56 MAKING OFFERS FURTHER EXAMPLES “Can” and “may” can also be used to offer to do something for someone. “May” is only used for formal situations. SHALL FOR OFFERS AND SUGGESTIONS “Shall” is used to find out if someone thinks a certain suggestion is a good idea. This is not often used in US English. 157 Suggestions and advice The modal verb “could” can be used to offer suggestions. “Could” is not as strong as “should.” It communicates gentle advice. See also: Conditional sentences 29 Types of verbs 49 Modal verbs 56 “SHOULD” FOR ADVICE “Should” is used when the speaker wants to make a strong suggestion. “Should” comes before the advice. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “SHOULD” MAIN VERB “Should” is a modal verb, so it stays the same no matter what the subject is. 158 REST OF SENTENCE “Should” is followed by the base form of the main verb. “OUGHT TO” FOR ADVICE “Ought to” is a more formal and less common way to say “should.” It is not usually used in the negative or question forms. “IF I WERE YOU” English uses “if I were you” to give advice in second conditional sentences. The advice is expressed using “I would.” English uses “were,” not “was,” in this context. The advice comes after “I would.” FURTHER EXAMPLES The suggestion can come first without changing the meaning. There is no comma before “if.” “HAD BETTER” “Had better” can also be used to give very strong or urgent advice that can have a negative consequence if it is not followed. 159 “COULD” FOR SUGGESTIONS “Could” is often used to suggest a solution to a problem. It states a possible course of action without necessarily recommending it. “Could” means that the action is a possibility; a choice that might solve the problem. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM SUBJECT “COULD” MAIN VERB “Could” is a modal verb, so it doesn’t change with the subject. 160 REST OF SENTENCE The main verb stays in its base form. “COULD” AND “OR” FOR SUGGESTIONS When people give suggestions using “could,” they often give more than one option to choose from. “Or” is used to give an alternative suggestion. FURTHER EXAMPLES If the main verb is the same for both suggestions, it isn’t repeated after “or.” The modal verb doesn’t have to be repeated after “or.” MAKING RECOMMENDATIONS One of the most common ways of recommending something or making a suggestion is to use modal verbs. TIP Emphasis can be added by putting “really” in front of “should,” “ought to,” and “must.” General suggestion. Stronger suggestion. Very strong suggestion. 161 Obligations In English, “have to” or “must” are used when talking about obligations or things that are necessary. They are often used to give important instructions. See also: Future with “will” 18 Types of verbs 49 Modal verbs 56 OBLIGATIONS “Must” and “have to” both express a strong need or obligation to do something. “Must not” is a strong negative obligation. It means something is not allowed. “Don’t have to” means something is not necessary, or there is no obligation. FURTHER EXAMPLES HOW TO FORM “Must” does not change with the subject, but “have to” becomes “has to” in the third person singular. Both forms are followed by the base form of the main verb. 162 SUBJECT “MUST / HAVE TO” MAIN VERB REST OF SENTENCE COMMON MISTAKES “MUST NOT” AND “DON’T HAVE TO” “Must not” and “don’t have to” do not mean the same thing. “Must not” is used to give an instruction that forbids someone from doing something. “Don’t have to” is used to tell someone that it is not necessary that they do something. “MUST” AND “HAVE TO” IN THE FUTURE There is no future form of “must.” The future of “have to” is formed with the auxiliary verb “will.” “Will must” is incorrect. “Must not” does not have a future form. “Don’t have to” can be used in the future by changing “don’t” to “will not” or “won’t.” “MUST” AND “HAVE TO” IN THE PAST There is no past form of “must.” The past tense of “have to” is used instead. 163 Making deductions Modal verbs can also be used to talk about how likely or unlikely something is. They can be used to guess and make deductions about what has happened or is happening now. See also: Types of verbs 49 Infinitives and participles 51 Modal verbs 56 SPECULATION AND DEDUCTION The modal verbs “might” and “could” are used to talk about something with uncertainty. “Might” and “could” can be used to talk about uncertainty. The modal verb doesn’t change with the subject. “Might not” is used to describe negative things that are not certain. “Must” is often used to speculate about the present. “Cannot” and “can’t” are used when someone is certain something is impossible. FURTHER EXAMPLES 164 “Not” goes after the modal verb. The modal verb is usually followed by the base form of the main verb. SPECULATION AND DEDUCTION ABOUT THE PAST “Must have” with a past participle is used to speculate about the past when the speaker is sure something happened. Past participle “Must” can be replaced with “may,” “might,” or “could” when the speaker is not sure whether something happened or not. “Can’t” or “couldn’t” can be used to refer to something that the speaker is certain did not happen. FURTHER EXAMPLES 165 Possibility Modal verbs can be used to talk about possibility, or to express uncertainty. “Might” is the most common modal verb used for this purpose. See also: Present simple 1 Infinitives and participles 51 Modal verbs 56 “MIGHT” FOR POSSIBILITY “Might” can be added to different phrases to refer to past, present, or future possibilities. PAST POSSIBILITY “MI